Proximity/Propinquity=FriendshipPropinquity: nearness in physical space which creates the opportunity to meet other people.Propinquity is a big predictor of whether people become friends or romantic partners.Westgate Study: People who lived closer to one another (on the same floor) are more likely to befriend one anotherFacilitates formation of friendships in both homogeneous and ethnically diverse groups.Effects of proximity are based more on functional distance (distance in terms of interaction opportunities) than physical distanceWhy the Propinquity Effect?1) OpportunitiesLiving in close proximity creates more opportunities to make contact and have the initial encounters that are necessary to start a friendship.2) Anticipating interactionsWe know we must occasionally interact with those next door, we make an effort to have our initial encounters go well.As a result, most initial interactions are rewarding and help advance friendships.3) Mere Exposure EffectGreater exposure to a stimulus leads to a greater liking of that stimulus, including other people.Even for words, foreign symbolsWe prefer the mirror images of our faces, but our friends prefer the true image.Mere Exposure=LikingBeing exposed to a stimulus more (familiarity) leads to greater liking of the stimulusTurkish Word Study (Zajonc, 1968): Participants felts that Turkish words that had been presented more often, represented something goodFace preferences: We prefer the familiar faceWe prefer other people’s faces when they are in the correct orientation, than the mirror image. We however, prefer the mirror image of our face.Why the Mere Exposure Effect?1) FluencyEasier to process information about familiar stimuli.Pleasant feelings associated with more fluent processing.2) Classical conditioningRepeated exposure to a stimulus without any negative consequenceAssociate the stimulus with the absence of anything negative, and thus associate it with “safety,” and develop tendencies to approach it.Similarity=LikingFriends and romantic partners tend to be similar in beliefs and other characteristics (attractiveness, intelligence, socioeconomic status, and so on).A study of romantic couples found that, on 75% of the traits, couples were more similar than people paired at random (Burgess & Wallin, 1953).Random roommates like each other more over the semester if they have similar valuesThe belief that “opposites attract” is not largely supported by the research.Complementarity conflicts with the more powerful effect of similarity on attraction.Even in cases where partners may seem like opposites in some domains, they are likely to have many more overall similarities than differences.Why the Similarity Effect?1) Validate our own beliefsSimilar others have similar beliefs.We like people who agree with us, and we may feel uncomfortable around people who challenge our beliefs.2) Smoother interactionsInteracting with people similar to ourselves is often easier.Davis (1981) – Agreement on topics of day-to-day importance had stronger effects than topics of general importance – It’s about smooth daily interactions3) We expect people who are similar to like usAnd we like people who like us.4) Similar people have qualities we likeWe tend to feel that our values, tastes, and habits are the “right” ones.Similar others also have these “right” qualities.Physical Attractiveness=Positive on Other TraitsThe Halo effect: People who are viewed as more attractive are often assumed to have other positive traitsAssumed to be more successful, likable, intelligent, happier, and (more vain and materialistic)Halo effects may be due to self-fulfilling propheciesWe expect attractive people to have desirable traits, so we may behave more positively toward them, and as a result they may respond favorably, confirming our original positive expectation.Women who talked with men over the phone, acted more positively, when men expected them to be attractiveCultural Differences in the Halo EffectThe traits we feel physically attractive people have are depend on the cultural valuesIndividualistic Cultures: Attractive = Assertive/DominantCollectivist Cultures: Attractive = Generous/SensitiveEarly Effects of AttractivenessAttractive infants receive more attention from mothers than less attractive babies even before leaving the hospital.Misbehavior or transgression by attractive children seen as less problematic than same behavior from less attractive children.Attractive faces are preferred at an early age.Children as young as 3 months prefer attractive adult and child faces over less attractive faces.Why Does Attractiveness Matter?1) Prestige: Attractive people and people with attractive partners may be seen as higher in social status.Men who are with an attractive woman are thought to be intelligent and successful (more so than men with unattractive partners).2) Immediacy: Physical attractiveness affects our immediate, gut reaction to people.3) Biology: Physical attractiveness signals health.4) Reproductive fitness (ability): The capacity to get one’s genes passed on to subsequent generations.What is generally attractive?Evolutionary basisBoth sexes want health and reproductive potential in a mate.Bilateral symmetry is a sign of healthSignals no diseases or genetic problems.Asymmetry results from injuries to the organism in utero (before birth), e.g., parasites, infectious diseasesAverage faces are seen as more attractiveNatural selection favors average rather than extreme or unusual features (for reproduction).Composites of many faces are rated as more attractive than the individual faces.Composites of attractive faces are found to be even more attractive.Sex Differences & Evolutionary TheoryParental investment hypothesisFor males, the parental investment required to produce offspring is just sperm, which is basically just mobile genetic material.For females, the minimal parental investment is exponentially GREATER.Pregnancy, producing a placenta, lactation, and an extended period of infertility following childbirthFemales’ investment is greater, so females should be choosier than males.Males often must compete to attract females and be selected by them.Females may select mates based on their ability to provide resources to potential offspring (e.g., social status, wealth, intelligence, ability).Males’ investment is smaller, so males should be less choosy about mating.Males have greater desire to more short-term mating and have more