Definition of AggressionAggression is any action that is intended to hurt another.Hostile Aggression – Behavior intended to harm another, either physically or emotionally, and motivated by feelings of anger and hostility.Instrumental Aggression – Behavior intended to harm another in the service of motives other than pure hostility.E.g., to attract attention, to acquire wealth, to advance political and ideological valuesCauses of Aggression -Situational forces1) HeatHigher temperatures are related to higher rates of aggressionMore violent crimes occur in summer monthsMore acts of violence occur in cities that have higher average temperatureOne study found that baseball pitchers are more likely to hit batters with the ball as the weather gets hotter2) Media violenceEvidence that media violence can increase aggressive behaviorsEffect of childhood media consumptionLongitudinal study found that boys with high preference for violent TV at age 8 were more likely to engage in criminal behavior by age 30Regardless of how aggressive the boys actually were when they were 83) Social RejectionEvolutionarily driven: Aggression is a threat defense triggered by detrimental things in our environment (i.e. rejection)Being rejected leads to painful consequencesShameDistressSelf-doubtChanges in posture (slouching)More likely to blast noise at a disliked person4) Income InequalityIn countries characterized by high economic inequality, the average citizen is much more likely to be murdered, assaulted, or rapedthan in countries with less economic inequalityChildren in countries with greater income inequality are more likely to experience conflict with their peers and to report being victims ofExplanation:Social Rejection by upper income individualsUndermines cohesiveness in a community-Construal/InterpretationFrustration-aggression hypothesis: Proposes that frustration (being blocked from a desired goal) always leads to aggression (to motivate goal achievement)What leads to more aggression:1) How satisfied a person feels they will be when theyachieve the goalexample: can’t see your favorite movie vs. decent movie2) How completely is the goal blockedexample: denied admission for life vs. a day3) How frequently is the person blocked from the goal4) How close (physically or in time) is the person to theactual goalexample: sold out concert and you were in the front of theline vs. back of the lineCritiques of the frustration-aggression theoryAggression can result when goals are not directly blockedFor instance, heat increases aggression, but it’s not clear how aggression in that situation helps to achieve any goalHitting someone isn’t going to lower the temperatureNot all frustration leads to aggressionSome frustration leads to learned helplessness, whereby people may give up believing they can achieve their goalsThe neo-associationistic account: aggression may be caused by situational factors, and feelings based on interpretations of those situational factorsExample: Being on the beach on a hot day vs. being stuck in traffic on a hot daySituations that we interpret as unpleasant or unfair make us feel angry, and when we feel angry we have the urge to attackExample: According to neo-associationstic explanation, anything that leads to anger-related construals, making aggression more likely; Guns may prime anger related interpretations of eventsThe color black may be linked to aggression-Individual DifferencesCulture and AggressionSome people are more helpful/aggressive in different parts of the country“Culture of honor” in the American SouthConcern over reputation for toughness and avenging a perceived wrongWhite males from the South show more facial expressions of anger, elevated testosterone, firmer grip, and greater hostility after an insult than Northern Caucasian malesHigher rates of homicide due to arguments in the southern United States than the northern United States“Culture of honor” in the American SouthSoutherners tend to be more sensitive to perceived slights and insultsSoutherner Insult Study:Participants (Southern and Northern males) complete a questionnaire and walk down a hallway to deposit it.Along the way, they are bumped by a confederate who calls them an expletiveSoutherners vs. NorthernersShowed more angerWere more upset (higher cortisol)Were more ready for aggression (higher testosterone)Gave firmer handshakesGender and AgressionGender differences in types of aggressionLarge gender differences in violent crime rates (homicides)Males much more likely to be involved in violent and criminal behaviorMale also more likely to be the victims of homicidesPossibly due to differences in hormone levels, social learning, or evolved tendenciesWomen and AggressionWomen, of course, are also aggressive, but in different ways.Young men are more prone to acts of physical aggression, while young women are more prone to emotional aggression.Women seem to exceed men in “relational aggression”—they gossip, form alliances, and exclude othersCultural Explanations for gender differencesBoys and Girls are socialized to be more/less aggressive--Parents, teachers, media sources, and social institutions systematically cultivate more aggressive tendencies in men.When parents are presented with a video of an infant looking startled, if the infant is described as a boy, the parents say the infant is angry. If the same infant is described as a girl, the parents say the infant is fearful (Condry & Condry, 1976)Parents are more likely to talk about emotions with girls than with boys, which may cultivate greater empathy in women.Evolutionary Explanations of AggressionEvolution and AggressionEvolutionary theorists have used various approaches to offer new insights into the origins of aggression.Our behavioral tendencies may have been passed down genetically and refined through natural selectionNatural selection rewards behaviors that promote genetic survivalNatural Selection and FamiliesNatural selection rewards those parents who devote resources to their own offspring-passes on genes.But parental care is costly--requires time, effort, and material resources.Stepparents, in contrast, incur the same costs with no enhancement of their inclusive fitness, since they do not share genes with their stepchildren.Survey research consistently finds that relations between stepparents and stepchildren tend to be more distant and conflict laden, and less committed and satisfying, than relations between