Slide 1Slide 2Slide 3Slide 4Slide 5Abstraction: Abstract away the inessential features of a problemSlide 7Slide 8Slide 9Slide 10Slide 11Slide 12Slide 13Slide 14Slide 15Slide 16Slide 17Slide 18Slide 19Slide 20Slide 21Slide 22Slide 23To check “group-ness”Some examples…Slide 26Slide 27Slide 28Slide 29Slide 30Slide 31Slide 32Slide 33Slide 34Some properties of groups…Slide 36Slide 37Slide 38Slide 39Slide 40Slide 41Slide 42Slide 43Slide 44Slide 45Slide 46Slide 47Slide 48Slide 49Slide 50Slide 51Slide 52SubgroupsExamplesSlide 55Subgroup facts (identity)Subgroup facts (inverse)Lagrange’s TheoremSlide 59Slide 60Slide 6115-251Great Theoretical Ideas in Computer ScienceAlgebraic Structures: Group TheoryLecture 15 (October 12, 2010)Number TheoryNaturalsclosed under +a+b = b+aa+0 = 0+aIntegersclosed under +a+b = b+aa+0 = 0+aa+(-a) = 0Znclosed under +na+n b = b+n aa+n 0 = 0+n aa+n (-a) = 0(a+b)+c = a+(b+c)(a+b)+c = a+(b+c)(a+nb)+nc = a+n(b+nc)A+0 = 0+Aa+0 = 0+aa+(-a) = 0a+n 0 = 0+n aa+n (-a) = 0closed under *closed under *nclosed under *(a+b)*c = a*c+b*cdittodittoA+(-A) = 01/a may not existdittodittoNumber Theoryclosed under +A+B = B+Aclosed under +a+b = b+aclosed under +na+n b = b+n a(a+b)+c = a+(b+c)(A+B)+C = A+(B+C)MatricesIntegersZn(a+nb)+nc = a+n(b+nc)A+0 = 0+Aa+0 = 0+aa+(-a) = 0a+n 0 = 0+n aa+n (-a) = 0closed under *closed under *nclosed under *(a+b)*c = a*c+b*cdittodittoA+(-A) = 01/a exists if a 0dittodittoNumber Theoryclosed under +A+B = B+Aclosed under +a+b = b+aclosed under +na+n b = b+n a(a+b)+c = a+(b+c)(a+nb)+nc = a+n(b+nc)(A+B)+C = A+(B+C)Invertible MatricesRationalsZn (n prime)Abstraction: Abstract away the inessential features of a problem=Today we are going to study the abstract properties of binary operationsRotating a Square in SpaceImagine we can pick up the square, rotate it in any way we want, and then put it back on the white frameIn how many different ways can we put the square back on the frame?R90R180R270R0F|F—F FWe will now study these 8 motions, called symmetries of the squareSymmetries of the SquareYSQ = { R0, R90, R180, R270, F|, F—, F , F }CompositionDefine the operation “-” to mean “first do one symmetry, and then do the next”For example,R90 - R180Question: if a,b YSQ, does a - b YSQ? Yes!means “first rotate 90˚ clockwise and then 180˚”= R270F| - R90means “first flip horizontally and then rotate 90˚”= FR90R180R270R0F|F—F FR0R90R180R270F|F—FFR0R90R180R270F|F—F FR90R180R270F|F—FFR180R270R0R270R0R90R0R90R180F F F|F—F—F|F FF F F—F|F F—FF F|FF—F F|F|F F—R0R0R0R0R180R90R270R180R270R90R270R90R180R90R270R180How many symmetries for n-sided body? 2nR0, R1, R2, …, Rn-1F0, F1, F2, …, Fn-1Ri Rj = Ri+jRi Fj = Fj-iFj Ri = Fj+iFi Fj = Rj-iSome FormalismIf S is a set, S S is:the set of all (ordered) pairs of elements of SS S = { (a,b) | a S and b S }If S has n elements, how many elements does S S have? n2Formally, - is a function from YSQ YSQ to YSQ - : YSQ YSQ → YSQAs shorthand, we write -(a,b) as “a - b”“-” is called a binary operation on YSQDefinition: A binary operation on a set S is a function : S S → SExample:The function f: → defined byis a binary operation on f(x,y) = xy + yBinary OperationsIs the operation - on the set of symmetries of the square associative? A binary operation on a set S is associative if:for all a,b,cS, (ab)c = a(bc) AssociativityExamples:Is f: → defined by f(x,y) = xy + yassociative?(ab + b)c + c = a(bc + c) + (bc + c)?NO!YES!A binary operation on a set S is commutative ifFor all a,bS, a b = b a CommutativityIs the operation - on the set of symmetries of the square commutative? NO!R90 - F| ≠ F| - R90R0 is like a null motionIs this true: a YSQ, a - R0 = R0 - a = a?R0 is called the identity of - on YSQIn general, for any binary operation on a set S, an element e S such that for all a S, e a = a e = a is called an identity of on SIdentitiesYES!InversesDefinition: The inverse of an element a YSQ is an element b such that:a - b = b - a = R0 Examples:R90inverse: R270 R180inverse: R180 F|inverse: F|Every element in YSQ has a unique inverseR90R180R270R0F|F—F FR0R90R180R270F|F—FFR0R90R180R270F|F—F FR90R180R270F|F—FFR180R270R0R270R0R90R0R90R180F F F|F—F—F|F FF F F—F|F F—FF F|FF—F F|F|F F—R0R0R0R0R180R90R270R180R270R90R270R90R180R90R270R1803. (Inverses) For every a S there is b S such that:GroupsA group G is a pair (S,), where S is a set and is a binary operation on S such that:1. is associative2. (Identity) There exists an element e S such that:e a = a e = a, for all a S a b = b a = eCommutative or “Abelian” Groupsremember, “commutative” meansa b = b a for all a, b in SIf G = (S,) and is commutative, then G is called a commutative groupTo check “group-ness”Given (S,)1. Check “closure” for (S,)(i.e, for any a, b in S, check a b also in S).2. Check that associativity holds.3. Check there is a identity4. Check every element has an inverseSome examples…ExamplesIs (,+) a group? Is + associative on ?YES!Is there an identity? YES: 0Does every element have an inverse?NO!(,+) is NOT a groupIs closed under +?YES!ExamplesIs (Z,+) a group? Is + associative on Z?YES!Is there an identity? YES: 0Does every element have an inverse?YES!(Z,+) is a groupIs Z closed under +?YES!ExamplesIs (Odds,+) a group? (Odds,+) is NOT a groupIs + associative on Odds?YES!Is there an identity? NO!Does every element have an inverse?YES!Is Odds closed under +?NO!ExamplesIs (YSQ, -) a group? Is - associative on YSQ?YES!Is there an identity? YES: R0Does every element have an inverse?YES!(YSQ, -) is a groupthe “dihedral” group D4Is YSQ closed under -?YES!ExamplesIs (Zn,+n) a group? Is +n associative on Zn?YES!Is there an identity? YES: 0Does every element have an inverse?YES!(Zn, +n) is a group(Zn is the set of integers modulo n)Is Zn closed under +n?YES!ExamplesIs (Zn,*n) a group? Is *n associative on Zn?YES!Is there an identity? YES: 1Does every element have an inverse?NO!(Zn, *n) is NOT a group(Zn is the set of integers modulo n)ExamplesIs (Zn*, *n) a group? Is *n associative on Zn* ?YES!Is there an identity? YES: 1Does every element have an inverse?YES!(Zn*, *n) is a group(Zn* is the set of integers modulo nthat are relatively prime to
View Full Document