PSY 12000: EXAM 3
179 Cards in this Set
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What is Personality?
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A set of psychological characteristics that differentiates us from others and leads us to act consistently across situations.
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Factor Analysis
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Mathematical procedure used to analyze correlations among test responses.
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T/F: Cattell categorized thousands of terms to establish 16 main personality traits.
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True
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What are the three superfactors from Eysenck?
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Extroversion
Neuroticism
Psychoticism
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What are The Big Five personality domains (Hint: OCEAN)
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Openness
Conscientiousness
Extroversion
Agreeableness
Neuroticism
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Is Allport's Trait Theory focused on individuals or group averages?
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The Theory's focus is idiographic (On individuals, not group averages)
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Cardinal Traits
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A trait that dominates one live and personality. Also known as a "ruling passion."
Examples: Serve others, accumulate wealth
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Self-Report Inventories
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These ask people to answer groups of questions about how they typically think, act, and feel.
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Projective Personality Tests
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Projective tests ask people to interpret unstructured or ambiguous stimuli
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What are the differences between Self-Report and Projective tests?
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Self-Report Tests are highly standardized, easy to score, reliable, and valid, but their accuracy depends on the accuracy and honesty of the person taking the test.
Projective tests help people open up, talk about themselves, but interpretation of responses can vary widely across testers…
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Trait Theories
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Formal systems for assessing how people differ, particularly in their predisposition to respond in certain ways across situations.
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Central Traits
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Allport's term to describe the five to ten descriptive traits that you would use to describe someone you know friendly, trustworthy and so on.
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Secondary Traits
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The less obvious characteristics of an individual's personality that do not always appear in his or her behavior.
Example: Testiness when on a diet
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Psychodynamic Theory
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An approach to personality development, based largely on the ideas of Sigmund Freud, that holds that much of behavior is governed by unconscious forces.
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Conscious Mind
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Those things that occupy the focus of one's current situation.
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Preconscious Mind
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Contains things that aren't currently in consciousness but can be accessed.
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Unconscious Mind
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Contains memories, urges, and conflicts that are beyond awareness.
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Role of the Unconscious Mind?
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Contains memories, urges that are forbidden or dangerous
Dreams express contents of unconscious mind.
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Manifest Content of Dreams
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What you remember.
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Latent Content of Dreams
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True meaning.
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Id
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In Freud's theory, the portion of personality that is governed by inborn instinctual drives, particularly those related to sex and aggression.
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Superego
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The portion of personality that motivates people to act in an ideal fashion, in accordance with the moral customs defines by parents and culture.
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Ego
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The portion of personality that induces people to act with reason and deliberation, and helps them conform to the requirements of the external world.
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Iceberg Analogy
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The Conscious Mind (Ego and Superego) is the small portion of the iceberg above the water. The remainder of the mind (Idealistic principle, reality principle, and Id pleasure principle) is below the water line in the unconscious mind.
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Defense Mechanisms
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Unconscious processes used by the ego to ward off the anxiety that comes from confrontation, usually with the demands of the id.
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Repression
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A defense mechanism used to bury anxiety-producing thoughts and feelings in the unconscious.
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Denial
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One refuses to believe information that leads to anxiety
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Rationalization
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Explanations are created to deal with threatening thoughts.
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Projection
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Unacceptable wishes or feelings are attributed to others.
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Reaction Formation
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You behave in a way that in counter to how you feel.
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Sublimation
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Unacceptable impulses are channeled into socially acceptable activity.
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Psychosexual Development
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Conflicts, memories, urges in unconscious mind come from experiences in childhood.
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What happens if one fails to move through a stage properly during Psychosexual Development.
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The failure may lead to a fixation.
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Stages of Psychosexual Development
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Oral Stage = First year
Anal Stage = Second Year
Phallic Stage = Ages 3-5
Latency Period = Ages 5 to Puberty
Genital Stage = Puberty to adulthood
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Oral Stage
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First Stage
First Year
Pleasure comes from sucking, putting things in mouth
Fixation can cause overeating, smoking, nail-biting.
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Anal Stage
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Second Stage
Second Year
Pleasure comes form retaining or passing feces.
Fixation can cause excessive neatness or excessive messiness.
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Phallic Stage
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Third Stage
Ages 3 to 5
Pleasure comes from self-stimulation of genitals
Fixation can cause relationship and sexual problems
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Latency Period
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Fourth Stage
Ages 5 to Puberty
Sexual feelings suppressed
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Genital Stage
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Fifth and final stage
Puberty to adulthood
Mature sexual relationships
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Criticisms of Psychodynamic Theory
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Lack of scientific evidence
Over-reliance on case studies of disturbed individuals
Biased against women
Pessimistic view of human nature
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Collective Unconscious
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The notion that certain kinds of universal symbols and ideas are present in the unconscious of all people.
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Humanistic Psychology
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An approach to personality that focuses on people's unique capacity for choice, responsibility, and growth.
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Self-Concept
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An organized set of perceptions that we hold about our abilities and characteristics.
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Criticisms to humanistic theories
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Hard to predict or explain why drive for growth, self-actualization are sometimes expressed and sometimes not.
Depends too much on self-report
Too optimistic?
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Positive Regard
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The idea that we value what others think of us and that we constantly seek others' approval, love, and companionship.
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Conditions of worth
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The expectations or standards that we believe others place on us.
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Incongruence
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A discrepancy between the image we hold of ourselves -- our self-concept -- and the sum of all our experiences
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Self-Actualization
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The ingrained desire to reach one's true potential as a human being.
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Social Cognitive Approaches to Personality
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An approach to personality that suggests it is human experiences, and interpretations of those experiences, that determine personality growth and development.
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Locus of Control
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The amount of control that a person feels he or she has over the environment.
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Self-Efficacy
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The beliefs we hold about our own ability to perform a task or accomplish a goal.
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Reciprocal Determinism
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The idea that beliefs, behavior, and the environment interact to shape what is learned from experience.
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Criticisms of Social-Cognitive theories
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Overemphasize how a person responds in particular situations rather than on traits of person as a whole.
Underemphasize biological, genetic factors in development.
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Do people behave consistently across situations, or is behavior just determined by the situation?
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Evidence suggests there's more consistency withing the same kind of situation, less across different situations.
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Self-Monitoring
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The degree to which a person monitors a situation closely and changes his or her behavior accordingly. (People who are high self-monitors may not behave consistently across situations)
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Genetic Factors
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Some traits are determined by genetics but are shaped by the environment.
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Social Cognition
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The study of how people use cognitive processes to help make sense of other people as well as themselves.
(AKA: The way people think about people)
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Social Schema
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A general knowledge structure, stored in long-term memory, that relates to social experiences or people.
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Internal Attributions
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Attributing a cause of a person's behavior to an internal factor such as a personality trait or a disposition.
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External Attributions
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Attributing the cause of a person's behavior to an external factor such as some outside event or situation in the environment.
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If Steve said he aced the test because he is smart, he is applying _____ attribution.
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Internal Attribution
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If Steve said he did well on the test because he is lucky, he is applying _______ attribution.
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External Attribution
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Fundamental Attribution Error
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Underestimating the role of situational factors in others' behavior and overestimating internal factors.
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Actor-Observer Effect
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We generally tend to attribute our behavior to external factors and others' behavior to internal factors.
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Self-serving bias
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When people attribute their successes to internal attributions, and attribute their failures to external attributions.
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Prejudice
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Positive or negative evaluations of a person based on group membership.
Affective
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Discrimination
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Differential treatment of individuals based on group membership
Behavioral
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Stereotyping
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Beliefs and impressions held about a group and its members
Cognitive
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T/F: Stereotypes are generally thought to be voluntarily activated.
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False, Stereotypes are generally thought to be automatically activated.
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T/F: Stereotypes always lead to prejudice.
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False, Stereotypes don't always lead to prejudice.
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Explicit Prejudice (AKA: old-fashioned or overt prejudice)
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The prejudice that is readily reported by people.
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Implicit Prejudice (AKA: Covert Prejudice)
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The prejudice that isn't readily reported by people. People may have attitudes they don't even know are there until they manifest themselves.
Example: A woman clinches her bag as she passes a black man walking down a street without even realizing it.
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T/F: Implicit prejudice predict non-deliberative acts.
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True
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T/F: Explicit prejudice predict deliberate acts.
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True
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Social Learning
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We learn from our environment what to hate, what to love, and how to act.
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Illusory Correlations
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Beliefs that incorrectly link two characteristics, such as race and a personality trait.
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What 4 things reduce prejudice?
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Equal Status
Common Goals
Acquaintance Potential
Norms
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Confronting prejudice leads to ____ prejudice responding in future interactions.
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less
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Does suppression stereotypes work?
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No.
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What forms attitudes?
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Mere Exposure
Classical Conditioning
Operant Conditioning
Observation learning
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Peripheral Route
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Cues that are irrelevant to the message can affect persuasion.
Positive and Negative Cues
Message Length
Lack of Motivation and Ability
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Cognitive Dissonance
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Tension produced when people act in a way inconsistent with attitudes.
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Self-Perception Theory
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People use observations of own behavior as a basis for inferring their own beliefs.
Example: If I told people a job was interesting, that must mean I like the job.
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Why are attitudes important?
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They predict behavior.
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How can attitudes be measured?
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Self-Reports
Indirect Measures
Implicit Measures
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Self-Fulfilling Prophecy Effect
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A condition in which our expectations about the actions of another person actually lead that person to behave in the expected way.
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T/F: In social interactions, we usually try not to attribute our behavior to a cause.
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False. In social interactions we usually try to attribute our behavior to a cause or another.
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Covariation Model
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To explain behavior, we look to an event happening at the same time.
Consistency: Does the behavior always occur with the event?
Distinctiveness: Does the behavior only occur with the event?
Consensus: Do other people behave similarly when the event occurs?
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When consistency, distinctiveness, and consensus are high, we make a ...?
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External Attribution
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When consistency is high, but distinctiveness and consensus are low, we make a ...?
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Internal Attribution
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Actor-Observer Effect
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The overall tendency to attribute our own behavior to external sources but to attribute the behavior of others to internal sources.
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Self-Serving Bias
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The tendency to make internal attributions about one's own behavior when the outcome is positive and to the situation on external attributions when one's behavior leads to something negative.
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Attitude
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A positive or negative evaluation or belief held about something, which in turn affects one's behavior; attitudes are typically broken down into cognitive (knowledge about the object), affective (Emotional Feelings) , and behavioral components (Predisposition to act).
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Elaboration Likelihood Model
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A model proposing two primary routes to persuasion and attitude change: a central route, which operates when we are motivated and focusing our attention on the message, and a peripheral route, which operates when we are either unmotivated to process the message or are unable to do so.
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Performance is enhanced in social ___________.
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Facilitation
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Performance is impaired in social ___________.
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Interference
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Altruism
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Acting in a way that shows unselfish concern for the welfare of others.
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Bystander Effect
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The reluctance to come to the aid of a person in need when other people are present.
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Diffusion of Responsibility
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The idea that when people know (or think) that others are present in a situation, they allow their sense of responsibility for action to diffuse, or spread out widely, among those who are present.
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Social Loafing
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Tendency to put in less effort when working in a group than when working alone.
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Deindividualization
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The loss of individuality, or depersonalization, that comes from being in a group.
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Conformity
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The tendency to comply with the wishes of the group; when people conform, their opinions, feelings, and behaviors generally start to move toward the group norm.
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Group Polarization
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The tendency for a group's dominant point of view to become stronger and more extreme with time.
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Groupthink
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The tendency for members of a group to become so interested in seeking a consensus of opinion that they start to ignore and even suppress dissenting views.
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Obedience
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The form of compliance that occurs when people respond to the orders of an authority figure.
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Western cultures promote an _______ view of the self.
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Independent (Leads to devaluing conformity, obedience, altruism)
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Many non-Western cultures promote an ________ view of the self.
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Interdependent (Culture strongly emphasizes belonging to, contributing to a collective)
Japan
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What factors make a face attractive?
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Evolutionary Perspective: Healthy looking
Prototypicality: "Average" faces = Attractive
Subject Components: Cultural preferences, experiences, etc.
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Criterion of abnormal behavior
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Statistical Deviance: Infrequency among population
Cultural Deviance: Violates excepted standards of society
Emotional Distress: Behaviors that lead to personal distress
Dysfunction: A breakdown in normal functioning
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Insanity
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A legal term usually defined as the inability to understand that certain actions are wrong, in a legal or moral sense, at the time of the crime.
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Medical Model of abnormal behavior
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The view that abnormal behavior is symptomatic of an underlying "disease," which can be "cured" with the appropriate therapy.
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Diagnostic Labeling Effects
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Labels for psychological problems can become self-fulfilling prophecies.
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DSM-IV-TR
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The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (4th ed.), which is used for the diagnosis and classification of psychological disorders.
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What are the Five Axes of the DSM-IV-TR
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Axis I: Major Clinical Disorders
Axis II: Personality Disorders
Axis III: General Medical Conditions
Axis IV: Psychosocial and Environmental Problems
Axis V: Global Assessment of Functioning Scale
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Examples of Axis I
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Substance-Related Disorders
Schizophrenia
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Examples of Axis II
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Paranoid Personality Disorder
Narcissistic Personality Disorder
Borderline Personality Disorder
Antisocial Personality Disorder
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Examples Axis III
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Diseases of the circulatory system
Infectious and parasitic diseases
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Examples of Axis IV
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Problems with primary support group
Problems related to the social environment
Educational Problems
Occupational Problems
Housing Problems (Homelessness)
Economic Problems
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Anxiety Disorders
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A class of disorders marked by excessive apprehension and worry that in turn impairs normal functioning.
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder
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Excessive worrying, or free-floating anxiety, that lasts for at least six months and that cannot be attributed to any single identifiable source.
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Panic Disorder
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A condition marked by recurrent discrete episodes or attacks of extremely intense fear or dread.
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Agoraphobia
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An anxiety disorder that causes an individual to restrict his or her normal activities.
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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
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An anxiety disorder that manifests itself through persistent and uncontrollable thoughts, called obsessions, or by the compelling need to perform repetitive acts, called compulsions
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Social Anxiety Disorder
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Intense fear of being watched, judged, and embarrassed in social situations.
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Phobic Disorder
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A highly focused fear of a specific object or situation
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Somatoform Disorders
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Psychological disorders that focus on the physical body.
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Hypochondriasis
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Long-lasting preoccupation with idea that one has a serious disease, based on misinterpretation of normal body reactions.
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Somatization Disorder
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A long-lasting preoccupation with body symptoms that have ni identifiable physical cause.
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Conversion Disorder
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The presence of real physical problems, such as blindness or paralysis, that seem to have no identifiable physical cause.
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Dissociative Disorders
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A class of disorders characterized by the separation, or dissociation, of conscious awareness from precious thoughts or memories.
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Dissociative Amnesia
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A psychological disorder characterized by an inability to remember important personal information.
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Dissociative Fugue
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A loss of personal identity that is often accompanied by a flight from home.
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Mood Disorders
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Prolonged and disabling disruptions in emotional state.
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Major Depressive Episode
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A type of mood disorder characterized by depressed mood and other symptoms.
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Bipolar Disorder
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A type of mood disorder in which the person experiences disordered mood shifts in two directions - from depression to a manic state.
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Manic State
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A disordered state in which the person becomes hyperactive, talkative, and has a decreased need for sleep.
Schizophrenia
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Schizophrenia
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A class of disorders characterized by fundamental disturbances in though processes, emotion, or behavior.
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Personality Disorders
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Chronic or enduring patterns of behavior that lead to significant impairments in social functioning.
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Paranoid Personality Disorder
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A personality disorder characterized by pervasive distrust of others.
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Dependent personality disorder
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A personality disorder characterized by an excessive and persistent need to be taken care of by others.
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Antisocial Personality Disorder
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A personality disorder characterized by little, if any, respect for social laws, customs, or norms.
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Borderline Personality Disorder
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A personality disorder characterized by problems with emotional regulation, social relationships, and sense of self.
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Positive Symptoms of Schizophrenia
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An observable expression of abnormal behavior.
Hallucinations
Delusions
Disorganized Speech
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Negative Symptoms of Schizophrenia
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Elimination or reduction of normal behaviors.
Flat affect: Little or no emotional reaction to events
Refusing to take care of self
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Bio-psycho-social perspective
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The idea that psychological disorders are influenced, or caused, by a combination of biological, psychological (cognitive) and social (environmental) factors.
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A person with Schizophrenia has too ______ (much or little) Dopamine.
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To much Dopamine
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T/F: Schizophrenia is associated with enlarged ventricles.
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True
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Do some people inherit predispositions toward developing disorders?
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Yes.
If you have an identical twin with Schizophrenia, you have a 1 in 2 chance of also developing the disorder.
Similar patterns for depression and bipolar disorder.
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Learned Helplessness
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A general sense of helplessness that is acquired when people repeatedly fail in their attempts to control their environment.
May contribute to depression
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Causes of Cognitive Disorders
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Our beliefs and styles of thought, such as maladaptive attributions and a sense of hopelessness.
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Biomedical Therapies
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Biologically based treatments for reducing or eliminating the symptoms of psychological disorders.
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Antipsychotic Drugs
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Medications that reduce the positive symptoms of schizophrenia.
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What do most antipsychotic drugs act on?
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Dopamine
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Do antipsychotics act as antagonists, which means they _________ the action of neurotransmitters in the brain.
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block/prevent
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Antidepressant Drugs
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Medications that modulate the availability or effectiveness of the neurotransmitters implicated in mood disorders.
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Most antidepressant modulates _____.
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Serotonin
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Antianxiety Drugs
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Medications that reduce tension and anxiety
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Antianxiety Drugs act on ______.
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GABA
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Electroconvulsive Therapy
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A treatment used primarily for depression in which a brief electric current is delivered to the brain.
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ECT is controversial because...
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Unclear exactly how or why it works
Causes confusion, loss of memory
Relapse rate is high
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Psychosurgery
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Surgery that destroys or alters tissues in the brain in an effort to affect behavior.
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Psychoanalysis
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Freud's method of treatment that attempts to bring hidden impulses and memories, which are locked in the unconscious, to the surface of awareness thereby freeing the patient from disordered thoughts and behaviors.
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Free Association
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A technique used in psychoanalysis to explore the contents of the unconsciousness are asked to freely express whatever thoughts and feelings happen to come into their minds.
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Dream Analysis
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The process to determine the latent content of dreams.
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Cognitive Therapies
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Treatments designed to remove irrational beliefs and negative thoughts that are presumed to be responsible for psychological disorders.
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Steps of cognitive therapies
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Identify irrational beliefs, maladaptive interpretations of events.
Directly challenge irrational beliefs
Encourage more rational beliefs and interpretations
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Rational-Emotive Therapy
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A form of cognitive therapy in which the therapist acts as a kind of cross-examiner, verbally assaulting the client's irrational thought processes.
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Humanistic Therapy
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Treatments designed to help clients gain insight into their fundamental self-worth and value as human beings.
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Client-Centered Therapy
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A form of humanistic therapy proposing that it is the client, not the therapist, who holds the key to psychological health and happiness.
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Group Therapy
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A form of therapy in which several people are treated simultaneously in the same setting.
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Behavioral Therapies
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Treatments designed to change behavior through the use of established learning techniques
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Systematic Desensitization
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A technique that uses conterconditioning and extinction to reduce the fear and anxiety that have become associated with a specific object or event.
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Aversion Therapy
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A treatment for replacing a positive reaction to a harmful stimulus.
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Token Economy
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A type of behavioral therapy in which patients are rewarded with small tokens when they act in an appropriate way.
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Virtual Reality Therapy works?
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True, researchers have found that they can decrease the intensity and duration of an anxiety reaction.
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Punishment
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Behavior can be changes by teaching people about the direct consequences of their behavior.
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Spontaneous Remission
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Improvement in a psychological disorder without treatment - that is, simply as a function of the passage of time.
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Meta-Analysis
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A statistical technique used to compare findings across many different research studies; comparisons are based on some common evaluation measure, such as the difference between treatment and control conditions.
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Common Factors Across Psychotherapies
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Support Factors: Empathy, Acceptance
Learning Factors: Feedback, New Ideas
Action Factors: Specific suggestions for action
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PSY 12000:Study Guide