PSY 12000: EXAM 2
98 Cards in this Set
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Functional fixedness
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the tendency to see objects, and their functions, in certain fixed and typical ways
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phonology
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rules governing how sounds should be combined to make words in a language
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syntax
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rules governing how words should be combined to form sentences
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semantics
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the rules used in language to communicate meaning
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morphemes
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smallest units in a language that carry meaning (uncool has 2)
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heuristic
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the rules of thumb we use to solve problems, heuristics can usually be applied quickly, but they do not guarantee that a solution will be found
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means-end analysis
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a problem solving heuristic that involves devising actions, or means, that reduce the distance between the current starting point and the desired end
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working backward
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problem-solving heuristic that involves starting at the goal state and moving backward toward the starting point to see how the goal state can be reached
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searching for analogies
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problem-solving heuristic that involves trying to find a connection between the current problem and some previous problem you have solved successfully
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representativeness heuristic
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the tendency to make decisions based on an alternative's similarity, or representativeness, in relation to an ideal. for ex: people decide whether a sequence is random based on how irregular the sequence looks (how far off is it??)
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availability heuristic
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the tendency to base estimates on the ease with which examples come to mind
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infant communication 3-5 weeks
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cooing, "ooh" or "ah" vowel sounds
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infant communication 4-6 months
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babbling, "kaka" or "baba" vowel, consonant combinations
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infant communication 6-18 months
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vocalizations become specific to native language, first words are heard
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infant communication 24 months
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vocabulary of atleast 200 words
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infant communication preschool
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ability to produce and comprehend sentences
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psychometric
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the use of psychological tests to measure the mind and mental processes
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factor analysis
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statistical procedure that groups together related items on tests by analyzing the correlations among test scores
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g and s factors
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g is general intelligence, contributes to performance on a variety of mental tests, s - specific intelligence, specific factor unique to a particular kind of test
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fluid intelligence
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proposed by Cattell and Horn, the natural ability to solve problems, reason, and remember; fluid intelligence is thought to be relatively uninfluenced by experience
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crystallized intelligence
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proposed by Cattell and Horn, the knowledge and abilities acquired as a result of experience
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multiple intelligences - Gardner
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proposed by Howard Gardner, that people possess a set of separate and independent "intelligences" ranging from musical to linguistic to interpersonal ability
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8 different kinds of intelligence
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musical, bodily-kinesthetic, logical-mathematical, linguistic, spatial, interpersonal, intrapersonal, naturalist
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triarchic theory of intelligence
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Sternberg's theory of intelligence, proposing 3 types: analytic, creative, and practical
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achievement test
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psychological tests that measure your current level of knowledge or competence in a particular subject
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aptitude test
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psychological tests that measure your ability to learn or acquire knowledge in a particular subject
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3 components of a "good" test
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-reliability = consistency of test results
-validity = how well a test measures what it is supposed to measure
-standardization = keeping the testing scoring, and interpretation procedures similar across all administrations of a test
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mental age
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the chronological age that best fits a child's level of performance on a test of mental ability (smart 8 year old gets 12)
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chronological age
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actual age of person
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intelligence quotient (IQ)
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mental age divided by chronological age, then multiplied by 100
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tacit knowledge
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unspoken practical knowledge about how to perform well on the job
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intrinsic motivation
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goal-directed behavior that seems to be entirely self motivated
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drive
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a psychological state that arises in response to an internal physiological need, such as hunger or thirst
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incentives
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external factors in the environment that exert pulling effects on our actions
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instincts
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unlearned characteristic patterns of responding that are controlled by specific triggering stimuli in the world
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homeostasis
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the process through which the body remains a steady state, such as constant internal temperature or an adequate amount of fluids
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Maslow's hierarchy
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Physiological needs -> safety needs -> belongingness and love needs -> esteem needs -> self-actualization needs (the realization or fulfillment of one's own talents and potentialities)
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satiation signals
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internal chemical signals, such as the hormone CCK, that reduce our desire to eat
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hypothalamus
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the portion of the brain that limits hunger
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anorexia nervosa
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an eating disorder diagnosed when an otherwise healthy person refuses to maintain a normal weight level because of an intense fear of being overweight
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bulimia nervosa
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an eating disorder which the principal symptom is binge eating followed by purging (vomit or laxatives) to prevent weight gain
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sexual arousal - 1st stage
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excitement phase - changes in muscle tension, increased heart rate and blood pressure, and a rushing of blood into the genital organs
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sexual arousal - 2nd stage
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plateau phase - arousal continues to increase, although at a slower rate, to a preorgasm maximum point
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sexual arousal - 3rd stage
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orgasmic phase - rhythmic contractions in the sex organs (ejaculation)
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sexual arousal - 4th stage
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resolution phase - arousal turns to normal levels and in men, stimulation doesn't produce arousal anymore
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sexual scripts
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learned cognitive programs that instruct us on how, why, and what to do in our interactions with sexual partners
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three parts that make up emotion
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body response (arousal, muscle tension), expressive reaction (facial expression), and subjective experience (happiness, anger, fear)
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facial-feedback hypothesis
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the proposal that muscles in the face deliver signals to the brain that are then interpreted, depending on the pattern, as a subjective emotional state
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trait theories
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formal systems for assessing how people differ, particularly in their predispositions to respond in certain ways across situations
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Big Five dimensions of personality
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the 5 dimensions of personality - extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness(being thorough, doing a task well), neuroticism(being in a constant negative emotional state), and openness - isolated through factor analysis
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cardinal traits
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Allport's term to describe personality traits that dominate an individual's life, such as the passion to serve others or to accumulate wealth
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central traits
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Allport's term to describe the five to ten descriptive traits that you would use to describe someone you know - friendly, trustworthy, etc.
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secondary traits
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the less obvious characteristics of an individual's personality that do not always appear in his or her behavior, such as testiness when on a diet
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self-report inventories
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personality tests in which people answer groups of questions about how they typically think, act, and feel; their responses, or self-reports, are then compared to average responses compiled from large groups of prior test takers
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projective personality test
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a type of personality test in which individuals are asked to interpret unstructured or ambiguous stimuli (random shit)
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person-situation debate
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a controversial debate centering on whether people really do behave consistently across situations
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self-monitoring
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the degree to which a person monitors a situation closely and changes his or her behavior accordingly; people who are high self-monitors may not behave consistently across situations
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prejudice
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positive or negative evaluations of a group and its members
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discrimination
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behaviors that are directed against members of a group
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attributions
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the inference processes people use to assign cause and effect to behavior
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fundamental attribution error
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when people seek to interpret some else's behavior, they tend to overestimate the influence of internal personal factors and underestimate the role of situational factors
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actor-observer effect
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the overall tendency to attribute our own behavior to external sources but to attribute the behavior of others to internal sources
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self-serving bias
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the tendency to make internal attributions about one's own behavior when the outcome is positive and to blame the situation when one's behavior leads to something negative
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social facilitation
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the enhancement in performance that is sometimes found when an individual performs in the presence of others (social interference is opposite)
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altruism
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acting in a way that shows unselfish concern for the welfare of others
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bystander effect
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the reluctance to come to the aid of a person in need when other people are present
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ostracism
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when one is excluded and ignored by one or more members of a group (ostracized)
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passionate love
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intimacy and passion but no committment
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companionate love
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intimacy and commitment, but no passion
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Asch's conformity study
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Presented 3 lines and asked which is the same length as the standard, and put a test person in a room with 3 other people who purposely picked the wrong answer, which caused the test person to conform at a rate of about 37%.
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Latane and Darley Decision Tree
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Start ->dont notice->dont help.
->do notice->emergency? ->no-dont help, yes-define emergency
->am I responsible for the emergency?->no-dont help, yes-I will help
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insanity
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the inability to understand that certain actions are wrong, in a legal or moral sense, at the time of a crime
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diagnostic labeling effects
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the fact that labels for psychological problems can become self-fulfilling prophecies
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DSM
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the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders
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agoraphobia
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anxiety disorder that causes people to avoid public places and such
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somatic symptom disorders
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psychological disorders that focus on the physical body
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conversion disorder
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a somatic symptom disorder, where real physical problems(blindness, paralysis) have no identifiable cause
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schizophrenia
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a class of disorders characterized by fundamental disturbances in thought processes, emotion, or behavior - helped with antipsychotic drugs
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psychotherapy
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treatment designed to help people deal with mental, emotional, or behavioral problems
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antipsychotic drugs
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medications that reduce the positive symptoms of schizophrenia
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antidepressants
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modulate the availability or effectiveness of the neurotransmitters implicated in depressive disorders
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electroconvulsive therapy
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used primarily for depression, a brief electric current is delivered to the brain
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insight therapies
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treatments designed to give clients self-knowledge, or insight, into the contents of their thoughts and thought processes
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psychoanalysis
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Freud's method - bring hidden impulses and memories to the surface to free the client from disordered thoughts and behaviors
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rational-emotive therapy
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a form of cognitive therapy in which the therapist acts as a kind of cross-examiner, verbally assaulting the client's irrational thought
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Beck's cognitive therapy
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not as attacking as rational-emotive, instead clients identify negative forms of thinking themselves and the therapist acts as an adviser, helping clients discover their own unique kinds of faulty beliefs
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Gestalt therapists
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places the burden of treatment in the hands of a naturally good client, but clients are actively encouraged to express their feelings openly
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humanistic therapy
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treatments designed to help clients gain insight into their fundamental self-worth and value as human beings
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aversion therapy
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a treatment for replacing a positive reaction to a harmful stimulus, such as alcohol, with something negative, such as feeling nauseated
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systematic desensitizaiton
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a technique that uses counterconditioning and extinction to reduce the fear and anxiety that have become associated with a specific object or event
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GAS
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general adaptation syndrome - Hans Selye's model of stress as a general, nonspecific reaction that occurs in three phases: alarm, resistance, and exhaustion
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cognitive appraisal
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the idea that to feel stress you need to perceive a threat and come to the conclusion that you may not have adequate resources to deal with the threat
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Holmes and Rahe social readjustment rating scale
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a scale where life events are rated on a scale of 1-100 in terms of "life change units" death of spouse = 100, minor law infractions = 11
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lymphocytes
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specialized white blood cells that have the job of attacking foreign substances, such as viruses and bacteria
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3 types of coping with stress
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relaxation techniques, effective social support systems, and learning to reappraise the environment in a less threatening way
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role of social support
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helps reduce stress for many reasons, some of which being it helps people learn how to regulate their emotions more effectively and social contacts help people maintain a healthful lifestyle
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Type A personality
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hard driving, ambitious, easily annoyed, and impatient. seem to be immersed in a sea of perpetual self-imposed stress - always striving for personal success, type B opposite
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Lazarus's theory of stress
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stress is a two-way process, it involves the environment and the response of an individual subjected to these stressors - led to the theory or cognitive appraisal
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PSY 12000:Study Guide