PSYCH 100: EXAM 2
123 Cards in this Set
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Neglect
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Impairment in responding to stimulation on the contralesional side after brain damage (usually damage on the right, visual impairment on the left)
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Egocentric Neglect
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Defined by the midline of the viewer.
Failure to respond to stimuli presented relative to a midline projected from viewer
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Alloentric Neglect
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Defined by the midline of each object.
Failure to respond to stimulus presented relative to a midline originating from a point in the environment
-individual objects
-object
-not projected from viewer
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Kanisza's Triangle, Ebbinghaus Illusion
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Examples: Our brain fills in the triangle based on information collected from the rest of the world. Our brain also creates things that arent from the input (ex: creates a white triangle in the Kanisza's Triangle, Ebbinghaus illusion makes orange circles look like different sizes in compa…
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Top-Down Processes
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Brain compensates for missing information, fills missing information with whatever is plausible. This is useful because we know our bodies change over time, we have to be able to take this into account. (ex: pregnancy)
ex: Lacker 1988
Biceps vibrated -> reflexive flexion of the forear…
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Representing Location
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Locations are necessarily defined with reference to some other location.
ex) How we describe location "the keys are to my left," "the restaurant is two blocks north of campus."
Use reference location (me,campus)
Neurons also represent location using various reference points called …
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Retinocentric
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Location is represented relative to the center of gaze (fixation)
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Frames of Reference
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We find this in...
--single cell recording
--evidence from patients with neglect
Ex) You have a patient that reports problems "seeing" stimuli on right side. (right of what?)
-Case studies of subjects with visuospatial neglect can provide evidence regarding the nature of represent…
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Sensation
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Sensory input (from vision, touch, hearing, etc.) is transformed into neurons firing, part of subjective conscious experience.
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Attention
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too much input -> makes salient what's important.
Our brains can only focus on a few inputs at a time.
Our brain also creates things that aren't from the input (ex: Ebbinghaus illusion, Kanisza Triangle)
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Pinker Reading (Language)
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Aphasia: loss of language following a brain injury
Language is not learned, rather an instinct
Language is NOT a cultural artifact we learn the way we learn to tell time, it is in our brains biologically.
Unique to humans
Children learn language w/o being taught
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Two kinds of Learning...
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1. Hard-wired (spider webs, migration)
2. Learned (memory)
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Learning
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The process of acquiring new information
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Memory
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Retrieving information
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Digit Span
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How many digits can you retain in memory (short-term memory)
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Double Dissociation
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Short-term vs. long-term memory
Clive Wearing (short-term memory loss)
Double Dissociation...
Lesion (1) disrupts function A but not function B
Lesion (2) disrupts function B but not function A
From this we can infer the functions are independent because the viability of one fu…
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Short-term Memory "Working Memory"
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-Process of maintaining (for a brief amount of time) an active representation of information so that it is availible for use
-After used, information is typically updated or discarded.
-Limited capacity (7 +/- 2 items) though more likely four "chunks"
-Brief duration (about 30 seconds)…
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Anterograde amnesia
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Loss of the ability to create new lasting memories (ex: Henry Molaison, recall of old memories relatively intact, but cannot create new lasting memories. Impairment with Declarative memory.)
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Retrograde amnesia (2 types)
Consolidation Memory
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Loss of ability to retrieve old memories
(1) Focal Retrograde Amnesia: inability to remember anything before a specific point in time
(2) Graded Retrograde Amnesia: memory loss inversely related to a time of learning
Implies Consolidation Memory...
ex: Henry Molaison, difficulty l…
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Tower of Hanoi Task - Cognitive Procedures
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Henry Molaison would get better each time doing the task, even a year later he showed better scores. This shows some type of memory is still intact.
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Procedural vs. Declarative
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Procedural - knowledge of processes (motor, perceptual, cognitive)
Declarative - knowledge of facts & events (knowledge "that", this is what Henry Molaison had issues with.)
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Encoding (Memory)
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Experience to be encoded: going with friend X to movie Y at theater Z
Consists of many features distributed across different neural systems
--sensory (sights, sounds, smells)
--conceptual (thoughts)
--emotional
Encoding involves...
--feature binding: for a complete memory
--pat…
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Retrieval (Memory)
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Retrieval cue: movie Y (the name of the movie)
Pattern completion: retrieval of features associated with movie Y (friend X, theater Z, etc)
Evaluation of the pattern: is it veridical? fantasy? incomplete?
Criteria for evaluation: degree of familiarity, vividness, detail
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Marshmallow Study
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Rochester Reading:
-delaying gratification depends as much on nurture as nature
-"unreliable" group didn't wait for the marshmallow nearly as long as the "reliable" group (given/not given crafts supplies)
-individual differences in the ability to delay gratification on this simple task…
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Is language hard-wired or learned?
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Language is not learned, it is not a cultural artifact.
Universal grammar- Children are innatley equipped with a plan common to the grammars of all language, this is unique to humans, we are born with this.
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The Language Instinct -> Arguments
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-Develops spontaneously, without instruction, without awareness of underlying "rules" (poverty of the stimulus)
-Direct teaching/intensive practice has relatively little effect
-Same developmental milestones across languages, across kids, across cultures.
-Critical periods (it is easie…
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Language & Skinner
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Skinner believed in input/output
Language is not strictly input/output, Skinner would disagree
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Critical Periods (Language)
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-If children are not exposed to language before adolesence they FAIL to acquire it later in life
-Adult/child differences in language acquisition abilities
-Suggests a biological process with its own clock
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Creoles & Pidgins (Language)
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-Adult immigrants (without instruction) develop pidgins
--no consistent word order, no prefixes/suffixes, no tense marking, simple clauses only
--one sentence could be interpreted different depending on context
-Children of immigrants exposed to only pidgins speak creoles
--Creoles:…
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Genetic Blueprint (Language)
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Neural/cognitive machinery to organize/represent language stimuli in specific ways. The same across languages.
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Learning (Language)
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The characteristics of the specific language in the environment are learned
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Categories of Language
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Phonology
Morphology
Syntax
Orthography
Semantics
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Phonology (Category of Language)
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Phonology:
Inventory: our knowledge of the legal sounds of a language
Phoneme: smallest unit of language sound that serves to distinguish one word from another (ex: pot vs. pod)
Rules: Our knowledge of the legal combination of sounds
ex) English (blin)/bnin, Arabic blin/(bnin)
…
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Morphology (Category of Language)
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Morphology:
Inventory: our knowledge of the meaningful units of the language
Rules: How they can be legally combined in words
Morpheme: The smallest meaningful unit of language
ex) misapplication = mis + appli + tion
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Orthography
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Orthography:
Inventory: our knowedge of the letters of language
Rules: how they can be legally combined in words
Phonemes:
SH -> sh (shoot)
CH -> sh (chef) k (choir) ch (chew)
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Syntax
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Our knowledge of which words are necessary to understand the relationship between other words
ex: The boy hit the ball
The boy was hit by the ball
Our knowledge of how words can be combined to express meaning (word order)
ex: The student praised the teacher
The teacher praised the …
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Semantics
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Word meaning
red
red wine
red hair
red state
red soil
red alert
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Mental Representations
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Contents in the mind that stand for some object, event, or state of affairs. Allowing us to think of things even in their absence, or things that don't even exist.
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Thinking
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Process of operations we apply to analyze mental representations, comparing, concluding, solving, etc.
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Analogical Representation
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An idea that shares some of the actual characteristics of the object it represents. Usually take the form of mental images.
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Mental Images
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Mental representations that resemble the objects they represent by directly reflecting the perceptual qualities of the thing represented. (ex: image of cat)
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Symbolic Representation
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A mental representation that stands for some content without sharing any charactertistics with the thing it represents (ex: the word "cat")
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Proposition
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A statement relating a subject and a claim about that subject
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Node
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In network-based models of mental representation, a "meeting place" for the various connections associated with a particular topic.
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Associative Links
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In network-based models of mental representation, connections between the symbols (or nodes) in the network
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Spreading Activation
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The process through which activity in one node in a network flows outward to other nodes through associative links.
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Directed Thinking
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Thinking aimed at a particular goal, the way people draw conclusions and make decisions.
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Judgement
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The process of extrapolating from evidence to draw conclusions
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Heuristics
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A strategy for making judgments quickly, at the price of occasional mistakes (availibility vs. representativness)
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Frequency Estimates
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Assessments of how often youv'e encountered a particular event or object
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Availibility Heuristic
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A strategy for judging how frequently something happens - or how common it is based on how easily examples of it come to mind (ex: shark attack vs. potato salad)
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Representativeness Heuristic
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A strategy for judging whether an individual object or event belongs in a certain category based on how typical of the category it seems to be
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Dual-Process Theory
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The proposal that judgement involves 2 types of thinking, a fast, effiicent, but sometimes faulty set of strategies, and a slower, more laborious, but less risky set of strategies (system 1 & 2)
System 1 -fast/faulty
System 2 -slow/accurate
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Reasoning
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The process of figuring out the implications of particular beliefs, a way to test beliefs.
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Deduction
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When someone seeks to derive new assertations from assertations already in place
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Confirmation Bias
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The tendency to take evidence thats consistent with your beliefs more seriously than evidence inconsistent with your beliefs.
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Syllogism
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A logic problem containing 2 premises and a conclusion, the syllogism is valid if the conclusion follows logically from the premises. Often people will base their conclusion about the validity of a syllogism on plausibility.
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Selection Task
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Participants given 4 cars, told they follow a rule, asked to check which will prove if the rule is valid
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Utility Theory
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A conception of decision making endorsed by many economists, you should always consider the possible outcomes of a decision & choose the most desireable one, and consider the risks.
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Framing
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The way a decision is phrased or the way options are described. Seemingly peripheral aspects of the framing can influence decisions by changing the point of reference. (ex: focus on positives/negatives)
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Loss Aversion
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The strong tendency to regard losses as considerably more important than gains of comparable magnitude, and with this, a tendency to take steps (including risky steps) to avoid possible loss.
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Affective Forecasting
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Predicting one's own emotional response to upcoming events.
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Satisfice
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In decision making, seeking a satisfactory option rather than spending more time and effort to locate and select the ideal option.
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Justification
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People often feel better if they can come up with a justification for their decision.
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Proximate Cause (cultural)
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The influences within an organism's lifetime that led to its particular traits and behaviors
ex: why does your mother love you = seeing the child releases endorphins that result in feelings of love, which results in behaviors...
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Ultimate Cause (evolutionary)
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The reasons why over many years of evolution, a particular trait or behavior helped members of a population to survive and reproduce.
The function of a behavior and the reasons it evolved
ex: why does your mother love you = because she wants to make sure her genetic material is passed…
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Charles Darwin (1809-1882)
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Theory of evolution by natural selection, all speicies come from a common ancestor
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Natural Selection
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The mechanism that drives biological evolution. It refers to the greater likelihood of sucessful reproduction for organisms whose attributes are advantageous in a given environment.
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Naturalistic Fallacy
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The (mistaken) idea that anything "natural" or more "recent" must be "good"
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Altruism
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Helping behavior that does not benefit the helper (ex: vampire bats, penguins)
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Halo Effect
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The tendency to assume that people who have one good/bad trait also have other good/bad traits
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Homogamy
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The tendency of like to mate with like
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Romantic Love
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An emotional state charactertized by idealization of the beloved, obssessive thoughts of this person, and turbulent feelings.
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Romeo & Juliet
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The intensification of romantic love that can occur when the couple's parents oppose the relationship
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Companionate Love
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An emotional state characterized by affection for those whose lives are deeply interwined with one's own
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Broca's Aphasia
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Agrammatic speech, short utterances, omission of function words, left interior frontal damage. Good understanding, bad production.
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Wernicke's Aphasia
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Grammer is intact, but content is incorrect, left superior temporal damage. "word salad".
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Schemas
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Children learn about the world via development of schemas
Schemas: frameworks that develop to help organize knowledge
Assimilation: taking new experience and fitting it into already existing schemas
Accommodation: process by which existing schemas are changed, or new schemas are …
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Piaget (Development)
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Baby horse: begins walking within 2-3 minutes
Piaget believed children were active thinkers, critical thinkers.
Methods:
-asked children to solve problems, question them about the reasoning behind their solutions
-discovered that children think in very different ways than adults
…
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Piaget's Developmental Stages
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(1) Sensorimotor stage (birth-2)
(2) Preopertational stage (2-7 years)
(3) Concrete Operational stage (7-12 years)
(4) Formal Operational stage (12-adult)
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(1) Sensorimotor stage (birth-2)
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-information gained through sensation, motor, action
ex) children put objects in mouth because the mouth is sensitive to texture and helps them pick up information
-child perceives and manipulates, does NOT reason
-object permanence required
--the understanding that objects contin…
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(2) Preopertational stage (2-7 years)
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-emergence of symbolic thought
-egocentrism
--children cant understand that others see the world differently than they do (ex: children dont understand different perspectives, depends on how young they are, video showing children volcano model)
-lack concept of conservation (ex: gl…
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(3) Concrete Operational stage (7-12 years)
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-understand mental operations, leads to increasingly logical thought
-less egocentric
-can't reason abstractly or hypothetically
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(4) Formal Operational stage (12-adult)
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-abstract and scientific reasoning, last stage.
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Scientific evalution of Piaget
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-interesting and falsifiable claims (claims testable by experimentation)
-theoretical framework (schemas, stages)
-striking findings, experiments show evidence
however...
Limitations to Piaget...
-Theoretical: Does he really explain development with these stages? The stages are…
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Looking Time
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-- Preference: which way does babies head turn
-- Habituation: pacifier, repetition, new thing = more sucking
-- Surprise
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Explaining Development
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Neural development
--growth of connections ( a lot of connections die/reduce as we get older)
--myelin (helps neurons fire more quickly -> more as we get older)
Inhibition of behavior (disconnet between visual & motor system)
Accumulation of Knowledge
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Autism
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-lack of social connectedness
-language impairment
-treat people as objects
-mindblindness (false belief task, people with autism fail this task, asks subject to think about what someone else knows)
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Marshmallow Test
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Is it rational to wait?=
Depends on reliability, if child is raised in a reliable environment, they are more likely to wait. Depends on the situation/circumstances (ex: before/after art supply study)
Waiting is correlated with SAT scores, substance abuse, social skills, etc.
Correl…
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How humans think (Rationality)
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We are not computers/logic engines, we are not input/output
Ex: presidential debates/speeches always use stories about a particular individuals plight rather than factual statistics. We don't communicate statistically, but this technique makes us emphathize.
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Kahneman & Tversky (Rationality)
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-Proposed that people arent always rational
-Before, economic theories assumed that humans are completely rational thinkers (ex: low prices, more buyers)
Study of probability & disease (1981) - Humans try to avoid losses, even though the options do not differ mathetically at all. Word…
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Framing (Rationality)
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-Questions dont change, framing does
-Framing: changing the content of format in a way that alters perceptions of the content
(ex: people will die vs. people will be saved)
(ex: custody to Parent A or Parent B)
(ex: is Timothy a truck driver or Ivy league professor? There is much …
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Gilbert, Tafarodi & Malone (1993) (Rationality)
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-Subjects presented with text about a crime, asked to act as judges
-Red text is false in passage
--subjects are completely aware of this, however the red text still influences the reader.
Two Conditions
1) interrupted (had to perform digit search task while also judging)
2) Unin…
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Base Rate Fallacy (Rationality)
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Base Rate Fallacy: ignoring the base rate in the population in making judgments (ex: timothy/truck driver/ivy league professor)
-Humans dont think statistically
-We focus more on what is more common to us, based on stereotypes of past experience
If a man with a large stick at night…
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Capuchin Monkey Experiment (Rationality)
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-Teach monkey to use money
Experimentor A - starts off displaying one piece of fruit for one disk, gives either 1 or 2 fruits
Experimentor B - starts off displaying 2 fruits for one disk, gives 1 or 2 fruits
Monkeys prefer experimentor A because experimentor B is known to disappo…
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Loss aversion (Rationality)
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The tendency to avoid losses vs. acquire gains,
We focus on the magnitude of losses more than gains of the same magnitude
Risk Aversion: the odds that you are going to lose
Endowment effect: People place a higher value on goods they own vs. goods they don't own (ex: candy in class)…
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Prospect Theory (*study*) (Rationality)
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[ex: buying a toy train for your cousin (20 vs 50) or a car (21824 vs 21854), same difference in money (30) but in one case it is much more important.]
Gaining a dollar has a less positive impact than losing a dollar has a negative impact. Losses are more psychologically powerful than …
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Availibility Heuristic (Rationality)
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The frequency of an event predicted by how easily it comes to mind.
ex) we perceive shark attacks as more dangerous than potato salad, and plane rides more dangerous than car rides, because we hear about one more than the other, thinking that the other one does not happen as often and …
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Why does your mother love you? (Evolution vs. Culture)
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Ultimate cause:
The reasons why over many years of evolution, a particular trait or behavior helped members of a population to survive and reproduce.
The function of a behavior and the reasons it evolved. Explanation of behavior based on evolution, why something is there.
ex: why doe…
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Why is Evolution Relevant?
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Origins of consciousness, reasoning, morality, are interesting, gives us a perspective to understand this
--Looking at something from the evolutionary perspective can provide interesting insights on its current nature
--Tells us what could be innate/specialized, genetic/cultural, and wh…
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3 main factors that predict attraction...
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1) Proximity
2) Similarity
3) Familiarity
BIG exception to this: family members
We need a mechanism in place to not commit incest because our offspring won't live well (evolutionary, ultimate causation)
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1) Proximity
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Propinquity effect
-people form friendships/romantic relationships with those they encounter more often
-develop stronger relationships with people you sit next to in class, dorm neighbors (Back, Schumkle, & Egloff, 2008)
Reward/Cost perspective
-long distance relationship = lots of…
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2) Similarity
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Opposites don't attract - we only think they do because we tend to notice the ways people are different, more than similarties
Majority of factors are similar
-race, ethnic background, education level, social level, income, religion, values
-gregariousness, drinking/smoking habits, i…
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3) Familiarity
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Exposure effect
-rate familiar stimuli as more likeable than novel stimuli
-word in a foreign language, a melody, name of a product, you will like more if you are exposed to it more
-what about your own image?
---we prefer our mirror reflection, while our friends prefer the actual ima…
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Wason Selection Task
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We perform better on the car/gas task than the tea/deer task, because the situation is more familiar to us and revolves around a social contract.
4 conditions:
1) abstract hypothesis
2) familiar descriptive
3) unfamiliar descriptive
4) social contract
We do best in the social co…
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Are we being logical? (Wason) (Rationality)
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We are not logically, instead, we look for a balance between costs and benefits in social exchange (you give me Y i give you X) or social status (you are in category Y so you get benefit X)
We are especially sensitive to cheaters...
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Altruism
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Vampire Bat-
hard to feed off blood every 60 hours, so they share with each other.
Penguins-
will warn other penguins of an enemy, but then draw attention to themselves. Helps more genes get passed on to future generations
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Reciprocal Altruism (cheaters)
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"My good behavior is predicated that it will be reciprocated in the future"
Problem: cheaters!
Imagine two genes:
Gene A - listen to and give warning cries
Gene B - listen to, but never give warning cries
Short-term effect: 1 penguin survives
Long-term effect: population decre…
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Males vs. Females
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Males
-little sex cells (sperm)
-carry genetic material and not much else
Females
-Big sex cell (egg)
-carry genetic material, food, protective membrane, etc.
But typically... males grow to be larger than females
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Males vs. Females (why males are bigger/more colorful)
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Females have a bigger investment, need to make an important decision, which is why males are bigger/colorful = to impress the choosy females.
*There are exceptions to this, pipefish, spiders, etc
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Parental Investment
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Is any investment by the parent in an individual offspring that increases the offspring's chance of surviving at the cost of the parent's ability to invest in other offspring.
Females have a greater investment than males...
-9 months of pregancy
-use blood and other resources to nour…
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Strategic Discrepancy (Males vs. Females)
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Males:
-Mate with as many females as possible to maximize chances of offspring -> genes being passed down
-Must compete for access to females
--larger (peacock)
--specialized weapons (antlers)
-Look for females with reproductive potential, youth (OK Cupid data, males more likely …
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Sex differences in humans
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Usually males are larger than females, shows a history of non-monogomy in our species.
Even western culture is not totally monogomous, but instead serial monogomous.
Most socities are polygamous
Males:
-more agressive, history of competition
-male dominance in war
(ex: Study b…
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Florida State University Behavioral Study
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Penn data may be flawed because it was in survey form, males were shown to be more promiscuos than women.
Florida State University Behavioral Study:
Asked 3 questions:
1) Will you go on a date with me?
2) Will you go to my apartment with me?
3) Will you go to bed with me tonight?
…
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Sternberg's Triangular Love Theory
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3 points of the triangle...
1) Intimacy- feelings of closeness, connectedness, bonding
2) Passion- drive hat leads to romance, physical attraction, sex
3) Commitment- maintaining the love
Different types of love depend on the factors that exist
If you have none of the three, you …
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Attraction: Competence
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(Aronson Willerman & Floyd, 1966) Study had 4 conditions that subjects would listen to, intelligent man who spilled coffee, intelligent man, average man, and average man who spilled coffee
-Intelligent man who spilled coffee was considered most attractive, because he was competent yet …
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Computer Dance Study
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Walster et al., 1966
-Individuals paired together at "computer dance" in minnesota, actually just randomly paired
-Predictors of how much someone liked this partner, wanted to date her again, and actually asked her out
---attractiveness
---factors of intelligence and personality had…
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Arson wig experiment
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Attractive woman or frumpy woman interviews someone (same woman but bad wig and outfit in one experiment), gives subject a personality examination.
Attractive woman's opinion is seen as more important than the frumpy woman.
example of halo effect
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Halo Effect
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People who are attractive are veiwed as having better traits, and vice versa ( ex: Arson wig experiment)
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Capilano Suspension Bridge (Vancouver)
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Dutton & Aron, 1974
-a high and a low bridge
-female experimentor would ask male passerby to fill out a questionaire, write a story, and then she would give her number to the male
---more males called if they were asked after the high bridge
---signifigantly more likely to write "sexy…
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Shock Experiment (Arousal)
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Subjects come into lab, told to fill out a questionnaire including a rating of how attracitve you think the experimentor is
Before questionnaire:
Group A: told they would get a weak shock
Group B: told they would get a intense shock
Group B: rates experimentor as more attractive, …
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Valins 1966
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Male subject shown 10 seminude females while listening to their heart rate (actually just an audio tape being manipulated by the experimentor)
-Asked to rate the attractiveness of the nudes
-When false heart rate was faster, men rated those females as more attractive
-effect persiste…
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Attraction/Arousal
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Increased heart rate leads to perceived arousal/attraction, misattribute to person rather than a situation
coffee date!
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PSYCH 100: EXAM 1