BIO 181: FINAL EXAM
202 Cards in this Set
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what is rhizobium?
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nitrogen fixing bacteria within the roots of plants
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What are the 3 levels of plant transport?
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the uptake and loss of water and solutes by indv cells
short distance transport
long distance transport
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What are the 3 major transport routes?
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Symplast
Apoplast
Transmembrane
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what is short-distance transport?
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transport of substances from cell to cell at the level of tissues or organs
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what is long-distance transport?
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transport of a sap within xylem and phloem at the level of the whole plant
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what compartment does the symplastic route travel through?
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Cytosol compartment (cytoplasm)
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the symplastic route moves through the cytoplasm via _______
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plasmodesmata
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what is the function of the plasmodesmata?
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allows communication between cells
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the symplastic route does not cross the ______ ______ unless....
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plasma membrane; solute was originally external to the cell and had to have crossed the plasma membrane to enter the symplast
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the apoplastic route is under what compartment?
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cell wall compartment
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what do water and solutes move through with apoplastic route?
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cell walls and intercellular spaces
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the apoplastic route does not _____ the _____ ______
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cross, plasma membrane
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what route is more rapid due to less resistance to the flow of water?
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apoplastic route
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molecules move through what with the transmembrane route?
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plasma membranes and cell walls
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what is the function of the casparian strip?
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regulates the passage of molecules from the apoplast into the vascular tissue of the root
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what is the vacuole?
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space/vesicle within the cytoplasm of a cell; enclosed by a membrane
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the vacuole holds _____ and ______ cell
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water, enlarges
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the vacuole holds _____ _____ products
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toxic waste how does the vacuole deter herbivores?
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how does the vacuole deter herbivores?
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it contains unpalatable/poisonous compounds
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what is transpiration?
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the loss of water vapor from leaves
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transpiration is from the _____ to the _____ via _____
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roots, shoots, xylem
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_______ causes _____ sap to rise against gravity, without the help of any mechanical pump
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transpiration, xylem
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transpiration causes _________ ______
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evaporative cooling
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what can evaporative cooling do?
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lower the temperature of a leaf by as much as 10-15oC
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what does evaporative cooling prevent?
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denaturing of proteins
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what is guttation?
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the exudation of water droplets that can be seen in the morning on the tips of grass blades or the leaf margin of some small, herbaceous dicots
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the cohesion tension theory is paired with what?
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transpiration and xylem
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according to the cohesion tension theory, _____ expend no _____ on ____ ____
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plants, energy, bulk flow
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in the cohesion tension theory, the _____ energy indirectly powers _______
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suns, transpiration
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_____ is _____ due to hydrogen bonding
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water, cohesive
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what is adhesion
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water sticks to walls
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_____ exerted on _____ by evaporation at a plant's surface pulls a continuous stream of water from the soil
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tension, water
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what are guard cells?
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They help to regulate the rate of transpiration by opening and closing the stomata
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when guard cells are ______, or _______, the stomatal opening is ______
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turgid, swollen, large
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what is turgidity caused by?
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the accumulation of K+(potassium) in guard cells
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as ___ increased in guard cells, _____ _____ of guard cell drops and ____ enters
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K+, water potential, water
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when guard cells have ____ water, the cells to become _______ and the causes the stomatal opening to _____
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lost, flaccid, close
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what would cause the rate of transpiration to increase?
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sunny
warm
dry
windy
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what would cause the rate of transpiration to decrease?
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humidity
decrease in surface area
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what is an example of a xerophyte?
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cacti
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what do xerophytes attempt to do?
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decrease the rate of transpiration in order to conserve water
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xerophytes often have ___, ____ leaves in order to reduce leaf _____ ____ relative to leaf volume
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small thick, surface area
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what do some plants do during dry months and why?
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(desert plants) shed their leaves, while others (cacti) subsist on water stored in fleshy stems during the rainy season
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what are "crypts" in xerophytes
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depressions in which stomata are located that shelter the pores from dry wind
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what are trichomes and what do they do in xerophytes?
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"hairs" that keep humidity higher in the crypt than in the surrounding atmosphere
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what is translocation?
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transport of the photosynthetic products via phloem throughout the plant
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the direction that the ______ sap travels is _______
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phloem, variable
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what is the usual direction of phloem sap?
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mostly from a sugar source to a sugar sink
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what is a sugar source?
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a plant organ (esp. mature leaves) in which sugar is being produced by either photosynthesis or the breakdown of starch.
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what is a sugar sink?
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an organ (growing roots, shoots, or fruit) that is a net consumer or storer of sugar
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the ______ ____ is where sugar is produced
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source cell
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what is a sink cell?
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where the sugar end up (where they are needed)
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examples of carnivores plants?
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pitcher plant, venus fly trap, sundew (Drosera votundifolia)
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what is an incomplete digestive system?
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saclike system with a single opening to the exterior of the body, where food is ingested through, digested in the saclike cavity, and the indigestible portion is expelled through the same opening
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what is a complete digestive system?
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food is ingested through an oral opening, processed in several organs, and the indigestible components are eliminated through the anal opening
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The cavity in an incomplete gastrovascular systen is lined with ___________ _____ which secrete ___________ ________ to help the organism process its food
Example?
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endothelial cells, digestive enzymes
(usually small crustaceans like brine shrimp)
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carnivore vs. herbivore
length of the small intestine
length of large intestines
cecum
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long small intestine, shorter
short long intestine, long
small cecum, large cecum
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What are Carbohydrates?
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major fuel molecules and provide the raw “carbon skeletons” that are used in the synthesis of important molecules
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two examples of carbohydrates?
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monosaccharide
polysaccharide
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what is monosaccharide?
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(one sugar), e.g., glucose.
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what is polysaccharide?
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polysaccharide (“many sugars”), e.g., starch, glycogen, cellulose
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what are the 8 essential amino acids?
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isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan and valine.
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what are proteins mostly used for?
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mostly used for structure or specific functions such as enzymatic reactions
and regulation.
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complete protein sources contain what?
food example
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essential amino acids
meat, fish, eggs, milk, cheese (animal)
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incomplete protein sources do not always contain...
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essential amino acids
(plants)
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________ can provide up to 80% of total caloric requirements, mainly used for energy or energy reserves
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lipids (fats)
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what are the two essential fatty acids?
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linoleic (omega-6 family) and alpha-linolenic (omega-3)
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food sources for linoleic (omega-6 family)
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best source from seeds and grains, sunflower oil
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food sources for alpha-linolenic (omega-3)
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best source from fish and various oils (flaxseed, mustard, canola, olive, soybean, pumpkin, walnut)
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what are vitamins?
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are organic molecules required in the diet in small amounts
(from .01 to 100 mg per day depending on the vitamin)
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what are the two types of vitamins?
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Fat-soluble and Water-soluble
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what is a fat-soluble vitamin?
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vitamins A, D, E, and K. Excess is deposited into body fat.
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what is a water-soluble vitamin?
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vitamins B complex and C. Excess is excreted in the urine.
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what are minerals?
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simple inorganic nutrients required in varying amounts depending on the mineral.
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simple inorganic nutrients required in varying amounts depending on the mineral.
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large quantities needed(Ca,P,Na,K,Cl,S,Mg)
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what are microelements (minerals) and what are some examples?
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small quantities needed(I,Se,Zn,F,Fe)
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what are the functions of water?
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Transport: of nutrients and waste by blood (contains high water content)
Cell turgidity: keeps cells from shriveling
Cushioning and lubrication of joints
Regulation of body temperature
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what is malnourishment?
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Malnourishment occurs when one or more essential nutrients are missing.
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what are two kinds of malnutrition?
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Kwashiorkor and marasmus
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Characteristicsof Kwashiorkor
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children experience acute protein-calorie malnutrition. not enough protein, leads to 'edema' which is the accumulation of fluids in the tissue and particularly the feet and legs leading to swelling in those areas. Distension of the stomach is also commonly observed. they may then look fat…
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Characteristics marasmus
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In marasmus the children develop thinness but not oedema, the skin of the child also becomes thin and wrinkled and loses elasticity, emaciated
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when does obesity occur?
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occurs when there is an excessively high amount of body fat or adipose tissue in relation to lean body mass
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what has obesity been linked to?
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genetics
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what is the hunger regulation hormone linked to obesity called?
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Leptin (ob gene)
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How does the hormone leptin lead to obesity?
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In some individuals, the gene that regulates leptin is defective and appetite is not properly suppressed
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mild obesity is defined as what?
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weight is 20-40% over ideal weight as based on gender, body frame, and height, treated with diet
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moderate obesity is defined as what?
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in between (41-100% over), treated with either surgery or diet.
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morbid obesity is defined as what?
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greater than 100% over, treated with surgery
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what are the three hunger regulating hormones?
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Leptin
PYY
Ghrelin
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what does leptin do?
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suppresses appetite and stimulates metabolism
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what does PYY do?
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decreases appetite and makes people feel full after eating
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what does ghrelin do?
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stimulates hunger
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what is insulin?
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a hormone produced in the pancreas by the islets of Langerhans that regulates the amount of glucose in the blood
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what is glucagon?
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a peptide hormone, produced by alpha cells of the pancreas, that raises the concentration of glucose in the bloodstream
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Type 1 diabetes
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occurs when the pancreas makes little or no insulin. Without insulin, the body is unable to take the glucose (blood sugar) it gets from food into cells to fuel the body. People with type 1 diabetes must take daily insulin or other medications daily
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Type II diabetes
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most common form
The body develops "insulin resistance" and can't make efficient use of the insulin it makes,
The pancreas gradually loses its capacity to produce insulin.
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what are the two different types of cholesterol?
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Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and High-density lipoproteins (HDL)
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Low-density lipoproteins (LDL) are sometimes called what?
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“bad” cholesterol.
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High-density lipoproteins (HDL) are referred to as what?
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“good” cholesterol.
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High levels of LDL cholesterol can do what?
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can build up in your arteries, causing heart disease.
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how can fiber affect cholesterol levels?
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Dietary fiber from whole grains, as part of an overall healthy diet, may help improve blood cholesterol levels, and lower risk of heart disease, stroke, obesity and type 2 diabetes.
Soluble fiber modestly reduces LDL (“bad”) cholesterol beyond levels achieved by a diet low in…
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What is the normal range for total cholesterol in the blood?
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less than 200 mg/dL
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what is Mastication
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(chewing or maceration of food)
mechanical process
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What is Peristalsis
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muscular contractions that move food along the tubular structures of the digestive tract such as the esophagus and intestines
mechanical process
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What is Segmentation
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(a specific peristaltic movement in the intestines)
mechanical process
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What is Churning
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(mixing by muscular action in the stomach)
mechanical process
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what is a chemical process within digestion?
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Enzymatic secretions throughout the digestive tract
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what are the 3 salivary glands?
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parotid, sublingual, submandibular
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what does the parotid gland secrete?
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salivary amylase
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what does the sublingual gland secrete?
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mucin
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what does the submandibular gland secrete?
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Salivary amylase and mucin
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what is the salivary glands' role in digestion?
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to lubricate the mouth and begin the breakdown of carbs
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what mechanical action occurs in the mouth?
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mastication
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what is a bolus?
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a small rounded mass of a substance, especially of chewed food at the moment of swallowing.
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what are the structures associated with swallowing?
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tongue
pharynx
epiglottis
glottis
esophageal sphincter
esophagus
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What happens to the esophageal sphincter?
Before swallowing
When swallowing
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contracted
relaxed
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what is the mechanical action that occurs when swallowing?
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peristalsis
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What happens to the epiglottis?
Before swallowing
When swallowing
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up
down
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Epiglottis
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Flap responsible for sealing the larynx during swallowing so that passage of food or water into the trachea may be avoided
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pharynx
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joins oral and nasal cavities to larynx and esophagus
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glottis
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the opening of the larynx
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what is the larynx?
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Structure that contains the vocal cords
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what is the mechanical action of the stomach?
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i. Churning (mechanical action of muscles in the stomach)
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what does digestion in the stomach result in?
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chyme
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what is chyme?
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digesta "soup" of predigested material
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How does chyme get to the small intestine
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through the pyloric sphincter
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what are the epithelial cells?
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mucus, chief, parietal
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what do mucus cell secrete?
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mucus and inactive form of pepsin(ogen)
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what does the secretion of mucus in the stomach do?
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coating and protecting of stomach lining
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what do parietal cells in the stomach secrete?
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HCl
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what does the secretion of HCl in the stomach do?
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activates pepsinogen (to pepsin)
breaks down plant material
neutralizes harmful bacteria
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what do chief cells in the stomach secrete?
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pepsinogen (goes to pepsin)
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what does the secretion of pepsinogen (pepsin) in the stomach do?
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breaks down protein
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What is Helicobacter pylori and what does it cause?
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a type of bacteria that can enter your body and live in your digestive tract. After many years, they can cause sores, called ulcers, in the lining of your stomach or the upper part of your small intestine. For some people, an infection can lead to stomach cancer.
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what are the 3 regions of the small intestine?
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duodenum
jejunum
ileum
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within the duodenum, ___ of ______ occurs
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90% digestion
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what regions does nutrient absorption occur within the small intestine?
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jejunum and
ileum
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what are the walls of the small intestine made up of?
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Villi
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what are villi?
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finger like projections
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each villus has _______
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microvilli
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Microvilli
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Increases surface area for absorbtion
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lacteal
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lymph vessels in each villus of small intestine
involved in absorption/processing lipids from digestion
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Capillary system in villi
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transports glucose and amino acids.
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carbohydrates
Where does digestion start?
Where is it completed?
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begins in mouth ends in small intestine
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Fats
Where does digestion start?
Where is it completed?
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begins in mouth ends in small intestine
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proteins
Where does digestion start?
Where is it completed?
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begins in stomach ends in small intestine
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What are the secretions of the pancreas?
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biocarbonate
tripsinogen and chymotrypsinogen
lipase
pancreatic amylase
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what is the role of the secretion of bicarbonate in the pancreas?
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buffers acid chyme; neutralize stomach acid for small intestine
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what is the purpose of tripsinogen and chymotrypsinogen in the pancreas?
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break down proteins
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what is the purpose of lipase secretion in the pancreas?
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fat breakdown with the help of bile
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what is the purpose of pancreatic amylase secretion in the pancreas?
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breakdown of carbs (starch)
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what is the liver's role in digestion?
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create bile that is stored in the gallbladder
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What is the function of bile?
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emulsifies fat in the small intestine
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How does bile make it easier for lipase to digest fat?
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bile allows (fat)globules to remain separate so that lipase can act on them to break them down to fatty acids and glycerol
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what is the mechanical action that occurs in the small intestine?
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segmentation (peristalsis that occurs in various segments simultaneously)
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how does bile get from the gallbladder to the small intestine?
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the the common bile duct
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____ ____ cluster and are too large to enter the _______ bed, so they enter the _____ which is part of the lymphatic system and connects to the ______ (venous system)
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fatty acids, capillary, lacteal, blood
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What is the major function of the large intestine?
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absorption of water, vitamins, and solutes and the formation of feces
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large intestine structure
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cecum
colon
rectum
anal canal
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what are the different parts of the colon?
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ascending colon, transverse colon(--->), descending colon
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What happens if water absorption is too low
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diarrhea
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what happens if water absorption is too high?
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constipation
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Why should you eat lots of fiber and drink plenty of water?
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Because it helps move food through the digestive system.
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Role of bacteria in large intestine?
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Breakdown undigested food, create K, protect from pathogens
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appendix
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small extension by cecum
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what is an artery
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blood vessel that carriers blood away from the heart and toward the tissues (high pressure)
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what is the main artery in the body?
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Aorta
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what is an arteriole
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smaller than arteries that supply blood to the capillaries
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what is the capillary bed?
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interweaving network of capillaries that supply blood to body
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venule
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vessle that collects blood from capillaries and delivers it to a vein
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what is a vein?
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blood vessels that carry blood towards the heart.
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what is the main vein in the body?
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vena cava
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differences between arteries and veins
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Pressure vs. volume
Oxygenated vs. deoxygenated blood
Toward the body vs. toward the heart
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arteries are high _____ while veins are high_____
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pressure, volume
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muscle in arteries
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thicker than in veins
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Function of skeletal muscle in the veins
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blood flow back upwards toward heart
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What is the function of valves in veins
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to prevent back flow
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veins have _____ and arteries do not
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valves
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what kind of blood do veins carry?
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deoxygenated
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what kind of blood do arteries carry?
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oxygenated blood
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what direction do veins carry blood?
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towards the heart
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what direction do arteries carry blood?
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away from the heart to the rest of the body
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what are the two types of circulation?
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pulmonary and systemic
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Pulmonary Circulation
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involves movement of blood from the right ventricle to the lungs
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Systemic Circulation
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path of blood from left ventricle to body and back to heart
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what are the structures of the heart?
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Vessels, chambers, valves, blood vessels
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what are the 4 chambers of the heart
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right atrium
right ventricle
left atrium
left ventricle
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what are the 4 valves located within the heart?
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tricuspid
pulmonary semilunar
bicuspid (mitral)
aortic semi lunar
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what is the valve located between the right atrium and the right ventricle called?
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tricuspid valve
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what valve leads out of the right ventricle to the lungs?
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pulmonary semi lunar valve
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what valve is between the left atrium and left ventricle?
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bicuspid valve (mitral)
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what valve leads out of the left ventricle to the rest of the body?
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aortic semilunar valve
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Sinoatrial node
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causes atrial contractions (pacemaker)
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atrioventricular node
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located at inferior portion of the interatrial septum. passes wave of depolarization into atrioventricular bundle.
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atrioventricular bundle (bundle of His)
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specialized muscle fibers connecting the atria with the ventricles and transmitting electrical impulses between them
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Bundle branches
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two main branches, the right bundle branch and the left bundle branch, conduct electrical activity from the bundle of His down to the Purkinje's network or fibers
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Purkinje fibers
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fibers in the ventricles that transmit impulses to the right and left ventricles causing them to contract
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Which valves make the “lub?”
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The first heart tone "lub," or S1, is caused by the closure of the mitral and tricuspid atrioventricular valves at the beginning of ventricular systole.
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Which valves make the “dub?”
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The second heart tone "dub," or S2 ( a combination of A2 and P2), is caused by the closure of the aortic valveand pulmonic valve at the end of ventricular systole.
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what does the P wave represent?
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atrial contractions
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What does the QRS complex represent?
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ventricle depolarization
ventricle contraction
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What does the T wave represent?
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ventricular relaxation
repolarization
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BIO 181: EXAM 3