PSY 202:Psych Quiz 2
86 Cards in this Set
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Normative models
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What people should do (rational, economic)
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Descriptive models
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What people actually do
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Who came up with maximizing and satisficing?
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Herbert Simon
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Maximizing
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Gather all relevant information and try to make the best possible decision
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Satisficing
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Try to quickly reach a "good enough" solution
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Heuristics
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-Mental shortcuts used to make decisions
-Save time and effort
-Usually "good enough"
-But sometimes can lead to systematic errors
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Availability Heuristic
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Making a decision based on how easily an answer or example comes to mind
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Representativeness heuristic
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Making a decision about a person or object based on how closely it matches a prototype of some larger category
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Symbolic Representations
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Abstract mental representations that don't correspond to the physical features of objects or ideas
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Anchoring and adjustment
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The tendency to make numerical judgments by starting with a reference point and then adjusting upward or downward
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Clustering illusion
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-The tendency to see patterns in random data
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Prototype model
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A way of thinking about concepts: Within each category, there is a best example -- a prototype -- for that category
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Exemplar model
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A way of thinking about concepts: All members of a category are examples; together they form the concept and determine category membership
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Expected Utility
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Calculate how happy each option will most likely make you in the future ("rational calculation")
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Framing
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Effects of how the information is presented
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Prospect Theory
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-Describes how people convert objective events into subjective value when making decisions under uncertainty
-First proposed by Daniel Kahneman and Amos Tversky in early 1970s
-Kahneman won nobel prize in 2002
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Change sensitivity
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-People think about value as a difference (or 'change') from some reference point
-Example: You just graduated and have been offered two jobs:
-Job A: offers modest pay but good job security
-Job B: offeres high pay but poor job security
-Change sensitivity says it matters what refere…
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Gain and loss Framing
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-When choosing between options with different levels of uncertainty:
-Gain framing make people risk-averse
-Loss framing make people risk-seeking
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Loss Aversion
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-Losses feel larger than gains
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Endowment effect
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-Buyers: How much would you pay for my mug?
-Sellers: How much do I need to pay you to give me your mug?
-Finding: Sellers value the mug more than buyers
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Valence
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-Will I feel pleasant or unpleasant?
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Intensity
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-How strong will the feelings be?
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Duration
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-How long will I feel that way?
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Impact Bias
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-The tendency to overestimate the intensity and duration of future emotions
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Study by Dunn, Wilson, and Gilbert
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-Asked college students to predict how happy they would be with life overall if assigned to the most or least desirable dorm on campus
-Students were assigned to dorms by lottery
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Focalism
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The tendency to overestimate how much you will think about a futre emotion-eliciting event, and to underestimate how much you will think about other things
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Immune Neglect
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-Coping and defense mechanisms form a "psychological immune system"
-People are not fully aware of how effectively they will be able to cope with bad experiences
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Deductive Reasoning
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-Using general rules to draw conclusions about specific instances
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Inductive Reasoning
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Using specific instances to draw conclusions about general rules
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Intelligence
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-The ability to use knowledge to reason, make decisions, make sense of events, solve problems, understand complex ideas, learn quickly, and adapt
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Origins of intelligence research
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-Late 19th century france-influx of kids from farms moving into cities
-Alfred Binet-commissioned by Minister of Public Education to identify children who would benefit from remedial education
-Gave children mental tasks
-Found that performance on widely different mental tasks was posi…
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The Intelligence Quotient (IQ)
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-According to Binet:
-Mental Age (MA): What's the average age of people who received your score
-Chronological age (CA) what is your actual age?
IQ=100x MA/CA
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Stanford-Binet test
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Used primarily with children
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Wechsler tests
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Different versions for children and adults
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Raven's progressive Matrices test
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No language, only abstract figures, intended to be free of cultural biases
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Reliability
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The degree to which a test produces consistent results
-There are different ways of assessing reliability
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Test-Retest method
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Examines how well people's scores from two different testing occasions are correlated
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Internal consistency method
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Examines how well different items from a test correlate with each other
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Validity
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The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure
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Predictive validity
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The degree to which a test produces consistent results
-There are different ways of assessing reliability
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Test-Retest method
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Examines how well people's scores from two different testing occasions are correlated
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Internal consistency method
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Examines how well different items from a test correlate with each other
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Validity
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The extent to which a test measures what it is supposed to measure
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Predictive validity
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The extent to which a test predicts important outcomes in the future
-For IQ this might be:
-School achievement, job performance, and future income
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Spearman's g Factor
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-charles Spearman analyzed different tests of mental ability and found that they were all positively correlated
-Proposed that a single, general ability (g) is necessary for all kinds of problem-solving
-The score on a particular test is determined by g plus specific ability (s)
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Fluid Intelligence
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Intelligence that reflects the ability to process information, particularly in novel or complex circumstances
-Tests that require fluid intelligence are: Raven's matrices, Choice reaction time, inspection time, and working memory
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Crystallized intelligence
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Knowledge acquired through experience
-Tests that require crystallized intelligence: Vocab definitions, appropriate use of tools, and cultural practices
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Emotional Intelligence
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A form of social intelligence that emphasizes the abilities to manage, recognize, and understand emotions and use emotions to guide appropriate thought and action
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Francis Galton
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-Observed that family members tend to have similar psychological traits (Intelligence, personality, occurrence of mental illnesses)
-Problem: the more similar your genes, the more similar your environments
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Monozygotic (MZ-Twin Studies)
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-Twins who share 100% of their genes (identical twins)
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Dizygotic (DZ-Twin Studies)
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-Twins who share 50% of their genes (Fraternal twins)
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The Flynn effect
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-Named after the discoverer, James Flynn
-IQ increases about 3 points every decade
-Changes too large and too fast to be genetic
-Possible explanation:
-Improved nutrition, better education, or richer environments
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Limitations of Twin studies
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1.) Twin studies can't show the influence of environmental factors that don't vary within the study population
2.) More complex models show that the "amount" of genetic influence depends on the environment
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Steele and Aronson-Stereotype Threat
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-Risk of confirming negative stereotypes of one's group
-Black and white subjects answered GRE questions
-Diagnostic condition: Experimenter said the problems were diagnostic of intellectual ablility
-Nondiagnostic condition: Experimenter said it was just some lab task we made up
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Infant Abilities
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-Infants are born with an immature visual system - can detect movement and large objects
-Other senses on day 1:
-Will orient to sounds, turn away from unpleasant odors, and prefer sweet to sour tastes
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Teratogens
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Environmental agents that harm the embryo or fetus
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Infant Reflexes
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-Rooting: Turning the head and opening the mouth in the direction of a touch on the cheek
-Sucking: Sucking rhythmically in response to oral stimulation
-Grasping: Curling the fingers around an object
-Babinski: When foot is stroked, toes fan and curl
-Moro: when falling, spread out a…
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What can we learn from studying infant abilities and reflexes?
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-Clues to what is innate (Possible evolutionary origins)
-Orienting useful to researchers for figuring out what else an infant can do
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Synaptic Pruning
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-A process whereby the synaptic connections in the brain that are used are preserved, and those that are not used are lost
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Piaget's theory of cognitive development
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-Jean Piaget: Famously studied his own children. Also tested ideas in a lab
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Sensorimotor Stage
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-From Birth to age 2
-Information is gained through the senses and motor actions
-Child perceives and manipulates but doesn't reason
-Object Permanence: The knowledge that objects continue to exist even when you can't see them
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Preoperationalstage
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-(2 to 7)
-Emergence of symbolic thought
-Egocentrism: tendency to view the world through own experiences
-Centration: Paying attention to a limited range of aspect of an object
-Difficulty understanding conservation: Knowledge that certain kinds of basic quantities (mass, number) don…
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Secure attachment
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the infant is confident enough to play in an unfamiliar environment as long as the caregiver is present and is readily comforted by the caregiver during times of distress
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Concrete Operational Stage
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-(7 to 12)
-Better at conservation tasks
-Less egocentric
-BUT.... difficulty with abstract thought (such as purely symbolic logic, or hypothetical situations)
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Formal Operational stage
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-(12 to adulthood)
-Able to engage in abstract and hypothetical reasoning
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Theory of Mind
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-The ability to explain and predict other people's behavior by recognizing that they have different mental staes
-Early precursors in infancy
-Major milestone between ages 3-4 (ability to recognize that different people have different beliefs about the world)
-Ability to reason about o…
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Imprinting in animals
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-Konrad Lorenz
-Observed that geese learn very quickly to follow their mothers around, without any opportunity to learn the behavior
-How do they know who their mother is?
-Lorenz observed that the mother is the first moving object they encounter
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The cupboard theory of attachment
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-Infants (including humans and other animals) grow attached to their parents because their parents feed them and satisfy their needs
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Harlow's monkey experiments
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-Harry Harlow wanted to test the cupboard theory
-So infant monkey raised with artificial mother
-A bare wire "mother" that provided milk
-Infant monkeys spent most of their time clinging to the soft mother, which provided contact comfort
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What about humans attachment?
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-Newborns have a signal distress through fussing or crying
-3 months-express interest, joy, sadness, anger through facial expressions, respond to other's expressions
-6-7 months: show separations anxiety when separated from caregivers
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Bowlby's attachment theory
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-Proposed that thoughts, feelings, and behavior in close relationships are guided by a goal-directed system
-Influenced by multiple disciplines; psychoanalysis, cognitive science, and ethology and evolution
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Bowlby's observations
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Healthy children typically...
-Show distress when caregiver leaves them
-Show pleasure when reunited with caregiver
-Show distress when approached by stranger unless reassured by caregiver
-More likely to explore an unfamiliar environment if caregiver is present
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Influence of psychoanalysis
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-Early experiences can shape later behavior
-Emphasis on emotions and defense mechanisms
-BUT Freud believed in drives as nonspecific energy, but attachment theory proposes more concrete goals for behavior
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Four infant attachment styles
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Secure, avoidant, ambivalent, and disorganized
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Secure
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Distressed by separation, seek comfort or reunion, and use mother as a 'secure base'
-Caregivers typically flexible, sensitive in respondin
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Avoidant
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Don't display distress, avoid caregiver, and divert attention
-Caregivers often cold and rejecting
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Ambivalent
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-Highly distressed, unable to be reassured, don't explore
-Caregivers are inconsistent, ranging from unresponsive to overbearing
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Disorganized
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-Incoherent behaviors, may be indicative of abuse, neglect, or pathology
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Erik Erikson
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-Born and raised in Germany
-Trained in psychoanalysis by Anna Freud
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Erikson's theory of psychosocial development
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-humans continue to develop throughout the lifespan, not just in childhood
-Development a process of ongoing interation among body, ego/mind, and family and society
-The epigenetic principle: development is a predetermined sequence, must be done in order
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Identity vs. Confusion
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-Typically faced in adolescence and early twenties
- Main task to figure out who you are and place in society
-Successful outcome: know who you are, able to follow and achieve a life plan
-Unsuccessful outcome: uncertainty about self, difficulty making life decisions
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Intimacy vs. Isolation
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-Faced in early adulthood
-Main task: develop a capacity for close relationships
-Successful outcome: able to form close relationships
-unsuccessful: fear of commitment, difficulty staying close to others
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Gender identity
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A personal sense of being masculine or feminine
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Gender roles
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Expectations and characteristics that society associates with being a man or a woman
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Gender schemas
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Cognitive structures (knowledge, beliefs) about the appropriateness of male and female characteristics and behaviors
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Disengagement theory
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-Aging is a process of mutual disengagement between and individual and society
-Later life brings on isolation; creates an opportunity for reflection and to prepare for death
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PSY 202:Midterm One