PSY 202:Midterm One
86 Cards in this Set
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case study
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In-depth observation of one person or a small group
Hard to generalize from case studies
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Goals of Science
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describe
predict
explain
control
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theory
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proposed set of principles to organize and explain a phenomenon
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hypothesis
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proposed, testable relationship between two or more variables
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variables
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things that can vary
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categorical variables
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values are different members of a category
ex) nationality
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Continuous variables
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values vary in magnitude along some dimension
ex) income
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outcome variable
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variable hypothesized to show a difference when value of predictor is changed
(dependent variable)
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predictor variable
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variable that is hypothesized to be associated with change in outcome
(independent variable)
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manipulated variables
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predictor variables that the researcher controls and changes
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true experiment
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experimenter manipulates (controls and changes the value of) the IV; everything else is held constant or is randomized
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independent variable
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variable the experimenter manipulates while holding other variables constant and using random assignment
(varies independently of everything else)
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dependent variable
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variable whose value is hypothesized to vary according to value of independent variable (depends on IV)
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Confound variable
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variable that produces an effect that is confused (confounded) with the effects of the intended predictor variable
(external variable)
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correlational research
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do not manipulate predictor variable
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subject variables
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non-manipulated variables (often predictors) associated with qualities of the subjects in your study
eg) IQ, nationality, virgin/not virgin
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Operational Definition/Operationalize
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Putting the variables in terms that they can be observed and measured in
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scientific way of knowing things
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empiricism (scientific method)
theory, hypothesis, data
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correlational study
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measure two or more variables
association claim
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True experimental study
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manipulate the IV, measure the DV
casual claim
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Third variable problem
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variables other than IV/DV
-changes outcome of experimental research
-unintentional variable influences IV and DV
--> coincidental relationship
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Problems of self report
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- only good if report is honest
-social desirability bias
- some people can't report
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Problems with behavioral measures
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-does it really capture concept?
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problems with experimental/expert rating
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-maybe too subjective
-would other people agree?
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reliability
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stability or consistency in measurement
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test-retest reliability
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same results when repeated
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inter-rater (inter-observer) reliability
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degree to which multiple raters/observers agree that they have seen the same thing
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validity
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measure assess concept it is supposed to measure?
-concern for translating ideas into variables
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correlation coefficient
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measure of how closely the values of two variables are related to each other
-direction of relationship (neg/pos correlation)
-strength of relationship (further from 0 is closely correlated )
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correlation and causation
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correlation does NOT imply causation
Causation implies correlation
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Placebo condition
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experimental condition that research participants think or expect will have some effect but which in fact is inert (no effects)
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Double blind study
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neither participant nor person administering study knows which condition the participant is in
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motive
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stimulus that prompts a person to act in a particular way
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Maslow's hierarchy of needs
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5. self actualization
4. esteem
3. affiliation
2. safety and security
1. basic, psychological
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challenges to maslow
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-hard to study people with greatest need
-order is sometimes violated
-individual differences in ranking the needs
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Loewenstein (1996)
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It is hard to imagine "visceral" states ( hunger, drug withdrawal, sleep deprivation)
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homeostasis
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body's attempt to maintain stable psychological state
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Hunger cues
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lipid/glucose cues (brain)
mechanical cues (stomach growling/cramps)
social cues (scents)
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Hunger cues in the brain
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-lateral hypothalamus (on switch)
-ventromedial hypothalamus (off switch)
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Why are we so fat?
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-change in lifestyle (engineering out activity)
-attitudes toward and availability of food
-genetics
-set point theory
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set point theory
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natural weight that body tends toward
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bulimia
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-mostly women
-more common among college women
-related to anxiety, depression, impulse control
-problems with serotonin release
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anorexia
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-mostly women
-prevalent in adolescence, young adults
-rarer than bulimia
-20% die
-culturally specific
-related to obsessive compulsive disorder, perfectionism
-more genetic than bulimia
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common characteristics of anorexia and bulimia
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-irrational beliefs about food, eating, body image
-restrained eaters
-serotonin involved (cause or effect?)
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unconscious motives for anorexia
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avoid womanhood
-secondary sex characterisitics
-menstrual periods stop
-stay small (young)
struggle for control
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psychodynamic
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unconscious
hard to measure forces
forces you to do things
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Schachter and Singer
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-two-factor theory of emotion
-emotion = arousal + label
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misattribution of arousal
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attributing arousal to wrong source
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limits of misattribution effects
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-subtle differences in physiological responses for different emotions
-real source of arousal can't be salient (ambiguity helps)
-arousal not necessary for emotion
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role of appraisal in emotion
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not just event but our perception of event that causes emotions
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stress
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pattern of responses an organism makes to stimulus events that disturb its equilibrium and tax or exceed its ability to cope
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stressors
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stimulus events that cause stress
-eustress = good
-distress = bad
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Selye's General Adaptation Syndrom
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Stage 1: alarm reaction (fight/flight)
-tend and befriend
Stage 2: resistance
Stage 3: exhaustion
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support for tend and befriend hypothesis
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-in past, fight/flight more pronounced in men than women
-androgens important for fight/flight
-oxytocin inhibits flee response
-women protect offspring
-women's survival advantages tied to being socially well-connected
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coping
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individual attempts to deal with stress
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learned helplessness (Seligman)
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learn we have no control over our fate and thus no longer try to take control
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development
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change in organisms over time
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cognitive development
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changes in processes of the mind (ability to learn, think, remember)
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social development
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changes in interactions and relationships with other people
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physical development
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changes in the body and physiology
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cognitive changes as we age
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-memory for NEW info gets worse
-declines in fluid intelligence (problem solving)
-no change in crystallized memory (store of knowledge)
-slower on timed tasks
-decline in recall more than recognition
-decline in dividing attention
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selective optimization with compensation
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older people pare down number of activities to deal with deficits, but concentrate attention in areas that most interest them
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Fredrickson & Carstensen (1990)
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age and anticipated endings
concentrate social energies
selective optimization in social life
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cross sectional design
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different age groups measured at same point in time
-cohort effect
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cohort effects
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shared experiences of group
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Longitudinal design
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group is studied repeatedly over a period of time
-have to wait to complete study
-hard to stay in contact & keep getting data from research participants
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Stage model (Jean Piaget)
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discrete stages, not continuous development
-sensorimotor stage (0-2)
-preoperational stage (2-7)
-concrete operational stage (7-11)
-Formal operational stage (11/12 on)
-extra effort/practice WON'T result in acheiving skill for next stages
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sensorimotor stage
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birth to 2 yrs
-before symbolic thought
-no concept of object permanence
-egocentrism
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habituation
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what are babies interested in, surprised by?
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preoperational stage
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2 to 7yrs
-symbolic thought
-learn to talk
-egocentric
-theory of mind
-false belief (3-5 yrs)
-appearance vs reality
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theory of mind
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understanding about the mind
understanding of beliefs, intentions and desires
-particularly other people's minds guide their behavior
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DeVries (1969)
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cat-dog experiment
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Inability to distinguish reality/appearance seems to be universal
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1 - Occurs in variety of cultures
2 - Simplifying tasks doesn’t make it go away
3 - Giving kids “training” on the task doesn’t make it go away
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concrete operational
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7 to 11 yrs
-transitivity
-conservation tasks
-working on making judgments beyond appearances
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formal operational
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11 or 12 on
-abstract thought
-analogies
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Criticisms of Piaget's model
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assimilate- fit data to theory/schema
accomodate - change theory/schema to fit data
1. observation of limited samples
2. stages more continuous, less rigid
3. skills may appear in partial form earlier (method limitation)
-Baillargeon's research
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Syntax
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structure of language
how words are combined into meaningful sentences
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telegraphic speech
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two word utterances
18-20 months old
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evidence of Nature's role
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-universal language stages
-special brain areas
-too much to learn
-wrong stuff reinforced
-wrong stuff never heard, but said
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universal language stages
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1) babbling (6 mos to 1 yr)
2) one word utterances (1-1/5 yr)
3) two word phrases (18- 20 mos)
-telegraphic speech
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special brain areas
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broca's area (left frontal lobe) - language production
wernicke's area (left temporal lobe) - language comprehension
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Motherese/parentese
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slower, simpler, shorter, more clearly enunciated, repetitive, higher voise
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Tomasello & Farrar (1986)
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parent and infant jointly attending --> largest vocabulary gains
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Evidence of Nurture's role
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Motherese/parentese
Tomasello and Farrar
sensitivity to own language sounds
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critical periods
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windows of time in development of an organism which some particular development must occur
-development change will not occur after that point
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Sensitivity periods
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periods when a developmental change is most efficient, effective, but change can occur outside the period
-second language
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PSY 202:Midterm One