PSYC 1101: EXAM 2
123 Cards in this Set
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Developmental Psychology
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is the study of the systematic changes (physical, cognitive, and social) that occur throughout the life span
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Three issues that pervade Developmental Pyschology
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nature vs. nurture
gradual and continuous vs. sequence of separate states
whether personality traits remain stable or change of the lifespan
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Cross sectional designs
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observe participants of varying ages at one point in time
people of different ages are compared with one another
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Longitudinal Designs
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observe the same individuals are varying ages are restudied and retested over a long period of time.
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I. Germinal Stage
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conception to two weeks
zygote (fertilized egg)
cell division produces a zygote of some 100 cells>>>cells begin to differentiate.
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II. Embryonic Stage
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two to eight weeks
about 10 days after conception, the zygote's outer cells become the placenta and attach to the mother's uterine wall ( the inner cells become the embryo)
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III. Fetal Stage
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nine weeks to birth
by nine weeks after conception the embryo looks human and now is a fetus
the placenta transfers nutrients and oxygen from the mom to the fetus
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Age of Viability
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The age at which a baby can survive in the event of a premature birth
24 weeks
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teratogens
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agents, such as chemicals and viruses, that can reach the embryo or fetus during prenatal development and cause harm
Ex: street/rec drugs, caffeine, nicotine, alcohol, environmental chemicals, infectious diseases
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Maturation
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refers to biological growth processes that enables orderly changes and behavior
ex: crawl before you walk is physical maturation
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John piaget
(Cognitive Development Theorist)
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cognition- refers to all the mental activities associated with thinking, knowing, remembering, and communicating.
the mind tries to make sense of experience by forming schemas that organize and interpret information.
Ex:cats/dogs.
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Schemas
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concepts or framework
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Assimilation
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process of interpreting new info based on current understandings
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Accomendation
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to adjust our current understanding; to incorporate new information.
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Sensimotor Stage
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birth to two years
children experience the world through their senses and actions
by about eight months, an infant exhibits object permanence
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Object Permenance
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the awareness that things still exist even when they are out of sight.
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Preoperational Stage
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three to six
can not mentally manipulate information
marked by egocentricity
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Concrete Operational Stage
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Concrete Operational Stage
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Principle of Conservation
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volume remains constant despite containers shape.
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Formal Operational Stage
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twelve +
reasoning expands from the purely concrete to encompass abstract thinking (hypothetical)
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Lev Vygotsky
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-believed individuals development is product of culture
-cognitive abilities were assumed to develop through social interactions
-believed intellectual abilities were specific to culture where child was reared
-died before fully formed theory
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Vygotsky Theories
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2 primary functions of attachment to caregivers:
-1) is to satisfy biological needs such as nourishments
-2) is to provide bodily contact which
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Scaffold
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child can step into higher levels of thinking.
-parents provide social interactions, words,
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Attachment
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the attachment bond is a survival impulse that keeps infants close to their caregivers.
infants become attached to parents to: satisfy biological needs and provide body contact that is soft and warm
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Mary Ainsworth
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she developed a study she labeled the strange situations.
looked at how children reacted when their mother leaves and comes back and when strangers come in
children (roughly 60%) display secure attachment they play comfortably in their mother's presence and are distressed when she l…
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Insecurely Attached
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less likely to explore their surroundings, and when the mother leaves they remain upset.
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Authoritarian
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parents impose rules and expect obedience
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Permissive
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parents submit to their children's desires, make few demands and use little punishment
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Authoritative
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parents are both demanding and responsive
children with the highest self-eestem
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Law of Effect
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rewarded behavior is likely to reoccur
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Operant Conditioning
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learning in which behavior results in rewarding stimuli
occurs through rewards and punishments for behavior
an association is made between a behavior and a consequence for that behavior.
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Shaping
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a procedure in which reinforcers (food) guide an animal's natural behavior toward a desired behavior (teaching to rollover)
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Successive approximations
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rewarding responses that are closer to the desired behavior and ignoring all other responses
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reinforce
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is any event that increases the frequency of a behavior
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Positive reinforcers
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presenting/rewarding stimulus after a response.
it increases its behavior
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Negative reinforcers
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reducing or removing an unpleasant stimulus
which increases the behavior
ex: snooze button
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primary reinforce
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food when we are hungry
innately satisfying
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Secondary reinforce
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ex: money
is satisfying because we have learned to associate it with more basic rewards/primary reinforcers.
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Continuous reinforcement
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when the desired response is reinforced every time it occurs
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Partial (intermittent) reinforcement
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produces slower acquisitions of the target behavior than does continuous reinforcement, but the learning is more resistant to extinction
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Reinforcement schedules
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may vary according to the number of responses rewarded or the time gap between response
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Fixed-ratio schedule
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reinforce behavior after a a set number of responses
ex: assembly line
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variable-ratio schedules
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provide reinforcers after an unpredictable number of responses
ex: slots
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fixed interval schedules
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reinforces the first response after a fixed time interval
study time
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variable- interval schedule
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reinforces the first response after varying time intervals
boss check
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punishment
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attempts to decrease the frequency of a behavior by administrating an undesirable consequence
drawbacks: suppressing not changing unwanted behaviors,teaching fear, and increasing aggressiveness
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observational learning
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the process of observing an imitation a specific behavior is often called modeling
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memory
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is the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information
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recall
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refers to memory processes in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier
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Recognition
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refers to the memory process in which previously learned info is identified
multiple choice test
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shallow processing
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encodes on a very basic level, such as a word's letters or sound
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deep processing
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encodes sematically
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spacing effect
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we retain info better when our encoding is distributed over time
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testing effort
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one effective way to distribute practice is repeated self testing phenomennon.
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working memory
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refers to a more complex brain system that provides temporary storage and manipulation of the information necessary for such complex cognitive task as language comprehension, learning, and reasoning
arithmetic, letter-number sequencing
capacity varies (depending on age). unlike short te…
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Short term memory span
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for information is very limited
brief storage only
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iconic memory
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is a momentary sensory memory of visual stimuli
last a few tenths of a second
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Amygdala
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involved in the processing of memories that are emotionally vallanced
***emotionally charged memory
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Echoic memory
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is a momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli
sounds can be recalled within 3-4 seconds
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Explicit Memory
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declarative
is the memory of facts and experiences that no one can conscipusly know and "declare
requires effortful processing
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Implicit Memory
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nondeclarative
involves rentention without conscious recollection
contemporary researchers note that our two track mind processes many things automatically
memories include procedural memory which are automatic skills
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Left hippocampus damage
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have trouble remembering verbal information
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Right hippocampus damage
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have trouble remembering visual designs and locations
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Hippocampus
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'transfers' new information to the cortex for permenant storage
known as long-term potentiation
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Basil Ganglia
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deep brain structures involved in motor movement
facillitate formation of our procedural memories for skills
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Cerebellum
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processes implicit memories created by classical conditioning
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Frontal lobe maturation
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improves judgment, impulse control, and the ability to plan for the long term delays the emotional limibic system
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Lawerence Kohlberg
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moral thinking proceeds through a series of stages: preconvential, conventional, and post conventional morality
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preconventional morality
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interpret moral behavior entirely in term of personal gain and loss
common in children
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Conventional morality
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living up to social expectations (conformity)
common in adults
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post conventional morality
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rules are not important but changeable
rules are not absolute dictates to be obeyed with out questions
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Erik Erikson
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theorized eight stages of life , each with its own task.
infancy, early childhood, preschool, school age, adolescence, young adult, middle adult, and maturity
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infancy
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birth to 18 months
trust vs. mistrust
important life event: feeding
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early childhood
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two to three years
autonomy vs. shame and doubt
important event: toliet training
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Preschool
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three to five years
iniatiative vs. guilt
important event: exploration
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school age
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six to eleven years
industry/competence vs. inferiority school
important event: coping with social demands
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Adolescences
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twelve to eighteen years
identity vs. role confusion
important event: social relationships, striving to develop sense and personal identity
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Young adult
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nineteen to forty years
intimately vs. isolation
important event: relationships/intimate love
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Middle adult
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forty to sixty-five years
generativity vs. stagnation
important event: work and parenthood
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Maturity
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sixty-five to death
ego integrity vs. despair
important event: reflection of life
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what are the changes that happen in the mid 20's?
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muscular strength, reaction time, sensory keenness, and cardiac output
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Kubler-Ross
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came up with the stages of grieving
denial, anger, bargaining, depression, and acceptance
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learning
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is a relatively permenant change in an organisms behavior due to an experience
we learn by association- our mind naturally connects events that occur in sequence
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Context-dependent memory
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refers to improved recall of information learned in the same context
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State-dependent Memory
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improved recall of information when in the same emotional state as when the information was learned
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Serial Position Effect
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tendency to remember the first and last items in a long list better that the middle items
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Recency Effect
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immediately after learning, we remember the last items best
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Primacy Effect
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after a delay, we remember the first items best
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Classical Conditioning
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learning occurs through associations between an environmental stimulus and naturally occurring stimulus
this laid the foundation for John B. Watson's behaviorism
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Unconditional Stimulus
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food
evokes unconditioned response
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Unconditioned Response
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salivation
automatic (not learned) response
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Conditioned Stimulus
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Bell triggered a reaction
previously neutral stimulus
following conditioning, evokes conditioned response
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Conditioned Response
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salivation
learned reaction to Conditioned stimulus
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Acquisitions
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responses are best acquired when the conditioned stimulus is presented half a second before the unconditioned stimulus
classical conditioning is biologically adaptive
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Extinction
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the diminishing of a conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus occurs repeadily without the unconditioned stimulus
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Spontaneous recovery
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the reappearance of an extinguished conditioned response
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Generalization
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the tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar to the conditioned stimulus
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Loftus
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hypnosis, imagination, false information, and doctored photographs
False memories
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Discrimination
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the learned ability to distinguish between a conditioned stimulus and the other irrelevant stimuli
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memories of emotional events are especially likely to be facilitated by activation of the
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amygdala
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the reason most north Americans can not accurately describe the head of a penny is due to...
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encoding failure
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secure attachment
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Children who fell into securely attach groups have fairly distinctive characteristics
-when they came back were emotionally calm and wanting comfort
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Insecure Attachment
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kids who fell into insecurely were very clingy and hesitant when the mother left when Crazy or didnt care if she came or not
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Sensation
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is the process by which our sensory receptors and nervous system receive and represent stimulus information from our environment.
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Preception
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is the process of organizing and interpreting sensory information enabling us to recognize meaningful objects and events
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Transduction
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The process of converting one form of energy into another that our brain can use
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Absolute Threshold
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the minimum stimulation needed to detect a particular stimulus 50 percent of the time
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Weber’s Law (Just noticeable Difference)
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difference Thresholds increase in proportion to the size of the stimulus
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Difference threshold
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the minimum difference between two stimuli that a person can detect 50% of the time
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Visual
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rods and cones
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Olfactory (smell)
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Hair cells in nasal mucosa
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Auditory
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hair cells in the cochlea (hearing is called Auditions)
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Gustation (taste)
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Taste buds
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Skin
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Cutaneous receptors
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Muscles
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proprioceptors
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Sensory Systems (3 Steps)
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-They receive sensory stimulation
-Transform that stimulation into neural impulses
-Deliver the neural infor. to our brains
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reinforcers do what to behaviors
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increase
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Punishers do what to behaviors
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decrease
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What do current psychologist advocate
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reinforcement rather than punishment
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Encoding and retrieval
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Encoding: what is happening now
Retreival what is happening when you are remembering
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Mnemonics
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In chunking, we cluster information into familiar manageable units; when we organize information into meaningful units, we recall it more easily (e.g. use of mnemonics) ROYGBIV; phone numbers.
- Many memory aids use vivid imagery, because we are particularly good at remembering mental …
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Thalamus
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is the one region the receives sends it to the different lobes of the brain
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Memory systems hint
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Information comes through our senses and make sense of it whether its auditory occipital etc. Then makes a process for it and then store it then retrieve
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Study Guide: Final Exam