14 September 2008 Lecture 5/6 Outline – Plate Tectonics Earthquakes 1 1MAR110 Lecture #5 Plate Tectonics-Earthquakes Figure 5.0 Plate Formation & Subduction Destruction The formation of the ocean crust from magma that is upwelled into a pair of spreading centers. Pairs of transform faults bracket the segments of the spreading center. Earthquakes occur in the spreading center valleys. Magnetic stripes mark the age of the different parts of the crust. The collision of these two plates is marked by the subduction of the oceanic crust. Both shallow and deep earthquakes occur in the subduction zone. (LEiO) Subduction Zones Subduction Zones Figure 5.1. Plate Boundaries & Subduction Zones (LEiO)14 September 2008 Lecture 5/6 Outline – Plate Tectonics Earthquakes 2 2 Figure 5.3 OLD NEWS! ALASKAN EARTHQUAKE 1964! Figure 5.2 Convection Drives Plate Tectonics A schematic diagram of the major plate tectonic features in the upper 450km of the Earth. Convection in the asthenosphere causes the lithospheric parts of the plates to pull apart at the ocean ridges, move across ocean basins, and subduct to great depth in the convergent zone where plates collide. The subducting lithosphere melts at depth and rises as magma to form a volcanic island arc. (ItO)14 September 2008 Lecture 5/6 Outline – Plate Tectonics Earthquakes 3 3 Figure 5.4 West Coast Spreading Center & Transform Faults The North American (NA) plate is overriding the older Pacific Plate spreading center. The famous San Andreas fault is one of the spreading center transform faults. Thus Southern California and the Baja peninsula are moving northwestward relative to the NA plate. Thus in 15 million years or so, Los Angeles will not “fall into the ocean”, but rather will be located west of most of northern California –(ItO)14 September 2008 Lecture 5/6 Outline – Plate Tectonics Earthquakes 4 4 Figure 5.5 An area where two moving plates are locked together and where stress builds up until it reaches the breaking point and causes an earthquake. (?)14 September 2008 Lecture 5/6 Outline – Plate Tectonics Earthquakes 5 5 Figure 5.6 Plate Subduction: NE Pacific Section Formation of an exotic terrane from the collision of two continents in a subduction zone. Note how the (a) the oceanic plate carries a couple features toward the collision zone; where (b) first the seamount “sticks” to the continental plate; (c) followed by the small continental mass; (d) followed by the re-establishment of the subduction zone to the west. (LEiO)14 September 2008 Lecture 5/6 Outline – Plate Tectonics Earthquakes 6 6 Figure 5.7 Earthquake Example – Stress Relief ! The series of events that lead to an earthquake in a subduction zone. (top) Two plates lock together, causing uplift in the continental plate as the oceanic plate continues to subduct. (middle) When the stress exceeds the friction between the two plates, the fault ruptures with the continental plate springing forward and the area of uplift subsiding below the original level. (bottom) Over time the sunken are fills with sediment. (SciAmer 12/1995)14 September 2008 Lecture 5/6 Outline – Plate Tectonics Earthquakes 7 7 Figure 5.8 California Seismic Gap A large portion of the San Andreas Fault is a seismic gap with stress building up and has the potential to rupture in an earthquake similar to the 1906 one in San Francisco. (ItO)14 September 2008 Lecture 5/6 Outline – Plate Tectonics Earthquakes 8 8 Figure 5.9 Historic Earthquake Strengths Locations of seismic gaps and possible future earthquakes related to those gaps. (NH) Figure 5.10 Earthquakes on Mid Ocean Ridge Transform Faults The earthquakes (red dots) near mid ocean ridges usually occur in the short transform faults connecting sections of the ridge. A few weak earthquakes do occur within the divergent zone due to the block faulting that occurs as the plates pull apart. (?)14 September 2008 Lecture 5/6 Outline – Plate Tectonics Earthquakes 9 9 Figure 5.12 Other Kinds of Faults Three different forms of faulting that can occur due to plate movement and earthquakes. (NH) Earthquake MechanicsEarthquake Mechanicsno stress or deformationno stress or deformationstresses with deformationstresses with deformationcatastrophic rupturecatastrophic rupture& slippage along fault & slippage along fault EARTHQUAKE!EARTHQUAKE!Figure 5.11 Earthquake Mechanics Normally the crust is unstressed (a) but in a region of plate movement, the build up of stress on the crust causes it to deform (b) until the crust ruptures, releasing the energy that had been built up. (?)14 September 2008 Lecture 5/6 Outline – Plate Tectonics Earthquakes 10 10 Figure 5.13 Earthquake Scenario The epicenter of an earthquake is the location of the earthquake’s source on the surface of the earth while the focus is the three dimensional location. (?)14 September 2008 Lecture 5/6 Outline – Plate Tectonics Earthquakes 11 11 Figure 5.14 Earthquake Wave Types There are three ways that the ground moves during an earthquake: there are P waves that expand and contract much like the pressure waves that make up sound (b); S waves that move side to side (c); and surface waves that move up and down like waves on water (d). (?)14 September 2008 Lecture 5/6 Outline – Plate Tectonics Earthquakes 12 12 Figure 5.15 Waves Broadcast the Earthquake Occurrence It is possible to pinpoint the location of the epicenter of an earthquake by compiling the data from seismic recorders to find the P wave shadow zone that is caused by the way seismic waves travel through the earth. (NG 1965)14 September 2008 Lecture 5/6 Outline – Plate Tectonics Earthquakes 13 13 Figure 6.16 “Seismic Gaps” While there has been a “fair amount of stress relief due to recent earthquake activity in the northwestern North America collision zone, there are many seismic gaps around the perimeter of the Pacific Basin. A seismic gap is an area along a fault that has not had any activity for an unusually long period of time. Stress continues to builds up until it is released in one unusually large earthquake instead of many smaller ones that would have gradually released the stress. (?)14 September 2008 Lecture 5/6 Outline – Plate Tectonics Earthquakes 14 14 Figure 5.17 Earthquakes and Plate Boundaries The location of earthquake epicenters; note silhouettes of ocean spreading ridges and