BIOL 112 1st EditionFinal Exam Study Guide Lectures: 1 - 25Lecture 1 (January 14)Epistemology:•the study of knowledges and its omits•how do we know what we know, and how do we learn more?•we get information from the universe using our sensesLecture 2 (January 16)Untestable Theory - beyond our current ability to examine, don’t have the technol-ogy/resources to test a theoryUnfalsifiable Theory - constructed so that any possible test is meaningless, it’s not that you don’t have the resources/technology, it’s not fathomableLecture 3 (January 21)Evolution•A change in population of organisms over a long period of time•basis of change - change in genetic composition of population•Genetic changes produce:•change in biochemistry•change in morphology•change in behavior•any other aspects of organisms under genetic controlHalf-life•unaffected by normal ambient conditions: temperature, pressure, chemicals, etc.•in one half-life, half of the original sample of a material will have decayed•in two half-lives, 3/4 of the original sample will have decayed, etc.Lecture 4 (January 23)Homology: fundamental identity of structure/organization of structures in living creatures are similar, in spite of possible differences in function (in other words, structures on organisms from common ancestors, but have different function)Vestigial OrgansFeatures in an organism that exist, but have no purpose. They appear to be the re-mains of organs that were more developed and had a purpose in the past history of species (or its ancestors), but no longer are developed or used.Theories of EvolutionAttempts to explain observed facts, we evaluate these models by scientific standard techniquesJean Baptiste Lamarck - Theory of InheritanceTheory published in 1809, variations in organisms arise from use/disuse of organs, variations that develop during an organism’s lifetime are heritableLamarck’s Theory was not a valid model because it did not stand up to tests and was eventually discarded, but it was the first testable theory during the Enlightenment about evolutionCharles Darwin (1809-1882)•Father was a wealthy physician and sent him to Edinburgh University to study medicine •Darwin didn’t like medicine, but did like natural science, so he dropped out and returned home; dad said he could now be either a military officer or Anglican clergyman•Father then sent him to Cambridge to study theology, but he wasn’t enthusiastic about that, so he spent all his time studying natural sciences•Was given the opportunity to study on the H.M.S. Beagle to explore the coast of South America & managed to get money from his father to do soLecture 5 (January 28)Three Observations:•Resources are limited•Organisms produce more offspring than resources can support•Variability in aspects of organisms - these variations have a genetic basisTwo Conclusions:•Offspring compete for resources and not all will have success•Those organisms that compete most successfully will be most likely to reproduceand pass on favorable characteristics to offspringMimicry and its AspectsAposematic Coloration - warning coloration, bright easily-recognized organisms, frequently noxious, poisons, stings, or bad tasteMimicry: batestian and müllarian•Batesian - a non-noxious species resembles the aposematic signals of a noxious species•Müllarian - A number of noxious species converge to a common aposematic ap-pearanceLecture 6 (January 30)Neo-Darwinian Theory of Evolution•Mendel’s work was rediscovered and fused in with Darwin’s work•Darwin alone couldn’t support inheritable traits and the standard genetic model at the time was blending inheritance, for which Mendel’s work cor-rected that.•Darwin: Natural Selection acting on variations in phenotypes•Mendel: Genetic Variability - mutations and recombinations; and Principles of Heredity•Evolution became defined as a change in the genetic content of a population over timeHardy-Weinberg Equilibrium•Conditions must be met:•Breeding population must be large•No mutations are present in population•No immigration or emigration - no one comes in from the outside or leaves to change the population genotypes•Reproduction is random - the ability for all genotypes to contribute to the gene pool is equal; genotype is not related to the success of the future pop-ulation•If all conditions are met, the population is in a stable state (H-W Equilibrium) in which allele frequencies and genotype frequencies will not change from gen-eration to generation unless outside forces interveneLecture 8 (February 11)Linnaean InnovationsLinnaean system of classification (what we see today as systematics)Brevity of writing styleDevelopment of, and focus upon, concept of species as fundamental biological unityFormal rules of binominals:•Two words, always Latin or Classical Greek•Why?•It is impartial to certain countries since they are dead languages•Most education systems makes it essential to become fluent in these•Always italicized or underlined•Always used as a pair of wordsLecture 9 (February 13) Develop a scheme of organization which reflects the phylogeny (evolu-tionary "family tree") of organisms:•Create monophyletic categories:All organisms in category (taxon) have immediate common evo-lutionary ancestry, including ancestors•Avoid polyphyletic or paraphyletic taxaParaphyletic: leave creatures out of the taxa that make the data invalidPolyphyletic: include other taxa that isn't homologous with the data, has a different lineageLecture 10 (February 18)Two basic arrangements of cell wall components:•Gram Positive: Thicker cell wall ~20 nm; wall is 90% peptidoglycan, lipid content low (0-2%). Highly resistant to ethanol extraction, sogram stain will remain in cell and leave darkly stained cell. Purple/Blue.•Gram Negative: Thinner cell wall ~10-15 nm; contains only 20% peptidoglycan, higher lipid content (10-20%). High lipid content makes wall sensitive to ethanol extraction, so most of the gram stain will be removed and leave weakly stained cell. Pink.Gram positive cells are especially sensitive to penicillin (Penicillin in-hibits enzymes that synthesize cross links in wall.)Gram negative cells are less sensitive to penicillinLecture 11 (February 20)Symbionts: Some prokaryotes live in association with other organisms, derive carbon nutrients from living organic matter (host)•Mutualism: relationship is beneficial to both