BIOL 112 1st EditionExam # 1 Study Guide Lectures: 1 - 6Lecture 1 (January 14)2 questions from this sectionEpistemology:•the study of knowledges and its omits•how do we know what we know, and how do we learn more?•we get information from the universe using our sensesScientific Method:•A “mental tool” - a way of thinking - that allows us to build models of theuniverse to understand its actions and predict its behaviorAssumptions are needed to do this:•Universe is material: exists only as matter or energy•No supernatural (God, ghosts, angels, etc): doesn’t mean it doesn’t exist, but science can’t analyze these non-material phe-nomena•Universe is logical: cause/effect chains can be established•The Universe can be analyzedLecture 2 (January 16) Hypothesis - lower level of scientific model, temporary model cre-ated to be tested in an experiment, usually limited to a specific case, phrased in an “if, then” kind of style, set up for a specific conditionTheory - higher level of scientific model; reliable, useful, valid, testable model of some aspect of the universe; one single experiment usually doesn’t invalidate a theory; has good explanatory and predic-tive powers because it applies to many casesParadigms - large scale model, encompassing theory which gives a major frame of reference, major way of looking at the world (i.e. quantum mechanics, Mendelian genetics, cell theory, evolution)Untestable Theory - beyond our current ability to examine, don’t have the technology/resources to test a theoryUnfalsifiable Theory - constructed so that any possible test is mean-ingless, it’s not that you don’t have the resources/technology, it’s not fathomableLecture 3 (January 21)Around 10 questions from this sectionThe Scientific MethodTwo major aspects:•Observations - facts, what we see•Interpretations - theories, what it meansA “good” theory does two things:•Explains what happens, shows how things work•predicts what will happen, if certain conditions are established; not fortune-telling or predicting the future, but expected data from specified situations (experiments)Evolution•A change in population of organisms over a long period of time•basis of change - change in genetic composition of population•Genetic changes produce:•change in biochemistry•change in morphology•change in behavior•any other aspects of organisms under genetic controlHalf-life•unaffected by normal ambient conditions: temperature, pressure, chemi-cals, etc.•in one half-life, half of the original sample of a material will have decayed•in two half-lives, 3/4 of the original sample will have decayed, etc.Lecture 4 (January 23)Potential of 29 questions from this sectionHomology: fundamental identity of structure/organization of struc-tures in living creatures are similar, in spite of possible differences in function (in other words, structures on organisms from common an-cestors, but have different function)Concept of homology developed in 18th century, before evolu-tion was a conceptTheory of Homology: Theory that all vertebrates descended from an original ancestor with fundamental forelimb bone arrangementDifference in size/function developed over time, but all verte-brate forelimbs retain same common fundamental underlying pattern of organization, concept supported by detailed fossil evidenceTheory of Homology was further reinforced by molecular evi-dence: sets of homologous genes used to develop homologous structures in different organismsMolecular Homologies: organisms have homologies among their gene sequences and organization as well in their anatomyand development, essentially having the same genetic codeVestigial OrgansFeatures in an organism that exist, but have no purpose. They appear to be the remains of organs that were more developed and had a purpose in the past history of species (or its ances-tors), but no longer are developed or used.Theories of EvolutionAttempts to explain observed facts, we evaluate these models by scientific standard techniquesMust meet same evolution criteria as any other theory: explain & predictHomeobox - homology of arrangement of patterning genesJean Baptiste Lamarck - Theory of InheritanceTheory published in 1809, variations in organisms arise from use/disuse of organs, variations that develop duringan organism’s lifetime are heritableLamarck’s Theory was not a valid model because it did not stand up to tests and was eventually discarded, but itwas the first testable theory during the Enlightenment about evolutionCharles Darwin (1809-1882)•Father was a wealthy physician and sent him to Edinburgh Univer-sity to study medicine •Darwin didn’t like medicine, but did like natural science, so he dropped out and returned home; dad said he could now be either a military officer or Anglican clergyman•Father then sent him to Cambridge to study theology, but he wasn’tenthusiastic about that, so he spent all his time studying natural sciences•Was given the opportunity to study on the H.M.S. Beagle to explorethe coast of South America & managed to get money from his fa-ther to do soLecture 5 (January 28)8-10 questions come from this lectureH.M.S. Beagle•Darwin collected animals, plants, rocks, and fossils all along coast. Observed cultures and activities of peoples along coast. Sent specimens and reports home & won himself a growing repu-tation as a good scientist.•On the Galapagos Islands, Darwin observed 13 different species of finches. All had varying sizes and behaviors. On the South American mainland, though, there was only 1 species of the finches: seed eaters.•Why was there only 1 species on mainland and yet 13 distinct species crammed on small islands?•Developed a radical theory of evolution in the late 1830s after thevoyage, but didn’t publish it.Alfred Russel Wallace(1823 - 1913)•Wallace was a scientist and professional collector in a biological field station in New Guinea in the 1850s, had independently de-veloped evolutionary theory nearly identical to that of Darwin.•In 1858, he wrote a short paper on evolution and sent it to Dar-win asking for help getting it published•Darwin was persuaded by a friend to publish a joint paper, co-au-thored with Wallace.•The Origin of Species (1859) - 20 years of thinking and evidence by Darwin assembled in this work.Factors that affected Darwin•Lamarck: Evolution does occur, new species do appear, organisms change•Charles Lyell (1797-1875)