BIO 121 1nd EditionFinal Exam Study Guide Lectures: 1-24Chapter 1- There are new properties emerge at each level in the biological hierarchyo The hierarchy of life is biosphere > ecosystem > community > population > organism > organ system > organ > tissue > cell > organelle > molecule > atomo In reductionism, complex systems are broken down into simpler, more manageable components o In systems biology, the behavior of a whole biological system rather than the parts of a biological system (looking at the big picture)- Organisms interact with other organisms and the physical environment - Life requires energy transfer and transformation o Energy flows through an ecosystem - Structure and function are correlated at all levels of biological organization - The cell is an organisms basic unit of structure and function o Cells are either prokaryotic or eukaryotico Prokaryotic cells lack membrane-enclosed organelleso Eukaryotic cells contain membrane-enclosed organelles- The continuity or life is based on heritable information in the form of DNA - Feedback mechanisms regulate biological systems o Negative feedback – accumulation of end products slow down the process that ismaking the productso Positive feedback – the end product stimulates the production of more products- Evolution accounts for the unity and the diversity of life and also the match of organismsto their environmentso Including the 3 Domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukaryao Natural selection was developed by Charles Darwin and it suggests that the natural environment “selects” for certain traits in a specieso There are three requirements for evolution to occur variation in a population (desired trait necessary for survival) a way for the variation to be inherited (must be able to reproduce, if only two have the desired trait needed, both can’t be female or male, one must be female and the other must be a male) Differential effect of the environment on the variation- Reasoning o Inductive reasoning - derives generalizations after collecting and analyzing observationso Deductive reasoning - used after the hypothesis has been made, and instead of a general conclusion, we conclude more specificallyChapter 2- Matter is made up of elements (a substance that cannot be broken down into any other substances by chemical reactions unlike a compound which is composed of two or more elements combined in a fixed ratio)o There are four elements that make up the majority of organisms: Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen.- An elements properties depend on the structure of its atoms o The atom is the smallest unit of an element and it is composed of a nucleus, protons (+), neutrons (0), and electrons (-)o The atomic number is determined by the number of protons in an elemento The atomic mass is determined by the number of protons and neutrons o An element may have isotopes (the same element with different number of neutrons, changing the atomic mass)o Electrons occupy specific electron shells, of each shell, the electron has a characteristic energy level, and that determines the chemical behavior of an atom.  The outer most shell is called the valence shell The farther away from the nucleus, the higher the energy level As you move toward the nucleus, energy is released  The closer to the nucleus, the lower the energy level  As you move away from the nucleus, energy is absorbed - Chemical bonds form when atoms interact and complete their valence shellso Covalent bonding is the sharing of electrons  Polar covalent bonding  Non-polar covalent bondingo Ionic bonding – is the attraction of oppositely charge electrons (one atom lost electron, making it positively charged, and one atom gained electrons, making itnegatively charged) o Hydrogen – an attraction between a hydrogen atom that is carrying a partial positive charge and an electronegative atom o Van der Waals interactions occur between transiently positive and negative regions of molecules Chapter 3- Polar covalent bonds in water molecules result in hydrogen bondingo A hydrogen bond forms when the slightly negatively charged oxygen of one watermolecule is attracted to the slightly positively charged hydrogen of a nearby water moleculeo Hydrogen bonding between water molecules is the basis for water’s properties- There are four emergent properties of water o Cohesion – hydrogen bonding allows water molecules to stick together collectively (related to cohesion is surface tension)o Adhesion – hydrogen bonding allows water to cling to other substanceso Moderation of Temperature – water moderates air temperature by absorbing heat from warmer air and releasing stored heat to cooler air  Water resists temperature change  Water is able to release (and absorb) a lot of heat without changing its own temperature (water has a high specific heat)o Expansion upon freezing – water is less dense (because it expands) as a solid than as a liquid, allowing ice to float on water At temperatures above 4 C, water behaves like other liquids, expanding as it warms and contracting as it cools  At temperatures below 4 C, water begins to freeze and becomes about 10% less dense than in its liquid state - Water makes a good solvent because of its polarityo Polar bonds are hydrophilic (water loving)o Non-polar bonds are hydrophobic (water fearing)- Molarity is the number of moles of solute per liter of solution - A mole is a certain number of molecules of a substance - Acid vs Base o Acids donate their extra H+ in aqueous solution (pH is <7)o Bases accept the H+ in aqueous solution (pH is >7)o Hydronium ions are acidic because of their extra H (i.e. H+ or H3O)o Hydroxide ions are basic because they are lacking an H (i.e. OH-)- pH affects many things such as shape and function of molecules, rates of chemical reactions, molecules ability to bind together, and ions ability to dissolve in watero pH = - log ([H+ concentration])o increasing hydrogen, increases acidity o increasing hydroxide, increases basicity - Buffers are weak acids or weak bases that help solutions resist the pH Chapter 4- Organic chemistry is the study of carbon compounds- Carbon atoms can form diverse molecules by bonding with four other atoms o Carbon has a valence of 4, allowing it to bond with four other atoms such as Hydrogen, Nitrogen, and Oxygen o The simplest carbon molecules is a hydrocarbon (strictly hydrogen and carbon)o