For the first exam be able to do the following Explain the difference between a fixed mind set and a growth mind set o Intelligence is a fixed trait and everyone has a certain amount Fixed mind set Growth mind set effort o Intelligence is a potential that can be developed over time with hard work and Explain the negative effects of having a fixed mind set and the positive effects of having a growth mind set The fear of being revealed as dumb or worthless keeps those with a fixed mind set from tackling challenging tasks What s the problem with thinking this way You miss out on opportunities to learn Performance on any task doesn t tell you your overall intelligence global abilities future intelligence or worth as a person Self handicapping behaviors indicate that one cares more about looking smart than about accomplishing something In order to succeed one must put in effort But if one puts in effort one might look stupid So one doesn t put forth the effort and therefore doesn t succeed People with a malleable view of intelligence focus not on outcomes but on strategies that will help them learn and achieve more They see their performance as reflecting the amount of effort and success of the strategies they used Define what an argument is and identify arguments An argument is a connected series of statements called premises that are intended to give reasons to believe some further statement called the conclusion is true Explain what makes an argument good A good argument must fulfill two criteria o All the premises must be true or at least plausible o The premises must support the conclusion in the right way i e the argument must have the right form Define what it is for an argument to be valid and for an argument to be sound A deductive argument attempts to be valid If an argument is valid then o If the premises are true the conclusion must be true o If the conclusion is false then at least one of the premises must be false A good deductive argument fulfills two criteria 1 All the premises are true 2 It is valid When an argument fulfills both these criteria it is sound Define what a proposition is and give examples A proposition for our purposes is a sentence that can be true or false Reproduce the definitional truth tables for conjunctions disjunctions and negation Conjunctions A T T F F B T F T F C A B T F F F Disjunction p q p v q T T F F p T F Negation T T T F T F T F p F T Translate ordinary English sentences into their propositional forms Translate propositional forms into ordinary English sentences Create a truth table for a propositional form to show all the possible truth value combinations valid Create a truth table for an argument form and show whether the argument form is Explain the difference between deductive arguments and inductive arguments and be able to identify whether an argument is inductive or deductive o Deductive arguments attempt to be valid Arguments designed to show that a claim is certain given the truth of the premises A Inductive arguments attempt to be strong Arguments designed to show that a claim is probable given the truth of the premises Explain what a statistical generalization is and give some examples What are statistical generalizations 5 pts o Arguments that claim that because a sample of a population has a certain feature the population has that feature What are some examples of statistical generalizations o Election polls o Quality control samples o Controlled experiments Explain what determines the strength of a statistical generalization and evaluate the strength of a statistical generalization The strength of a statistical generalization depends on how representative the sample is of the entire population Their general form X percent of observed Fs are Gs premise Therefore X plus or minus z percent of all Fs are Gs conclusion Explain some ways to get representative samples Generally there are two criteria for a representative sample o The sample must be large enough o The sample must contain sufficient diversity How do we get a diverse enough sample Random sampling o Each member of the population should have an equal chance of being chosen as a member of the sample o Generally the larger the random sample the better To get a diverse sample you need A large random sample of the population OR If you know about the population you can take a shortcut If a population is small enough it can count as the sample If a population is fairly uniform a small random sample is enough Conduct a stratified random sample Divide the population into well understood subpopulations that can be randomly sampled Explain the main fallacies to avoid in statistical generalizations and give some examples to explain Several fallacies are associated with drawing conclusions from an unrepresentative sample o Hasty generalization The sample size is too small o Biased statistics The sample is not randomly selected i e not diverse o Researcher bias One fails to draw the conclusion justified by a sufficiently enough to be representative large random sample Explain the possible ways X and Y might be causally related when they are correlated When A and B are correlated there are five possibilities regarding causation The Correlation is Accidental X causes Y Y causes X X causes Y and Y causes X Some further common cause causes X and Y To know that X causes Y we must know o What happens when X is present o What happens when X is absent and all relevant conditions are the same as when X was present Explain what a control case is why they are needed to support causal claims and give examples Often the control condition is absent X is always present so we can t know what happens when X is absent What do we do when faced with hidden data We can use the method of concomitant variation The method of concomitant variation involves varying one of two correlated factors and seeing if the other factor varies proportionally We can set up controlled experiments Explain the three types of controlled experiments how to set them up and the benefits and shortcomings of each To set up a controlled experiment Be clear about what the causal claim is State it as X causes Y Set up a control group without X and an experimental group with X Is there a difference between the groups when it comes to Y If so there may be a causal effect If not there may not be a causal effect There are three types of controlled experiments 1 Randomized experimental study In a randomized experimental study you