Study Guide for the Cumulative Final Exam of Introduction to Psychology For this exam I will test you on the bigger more important concepts from the semester and on those that apply to multiple sections of the course Those concepts are listed below My advice for studying is to focus your attention on class notes and reading for the particular concepts rather than simply re reading all of the chapters in their entirety The exam will be held in our regular classroom The exact date and time are on the syllabus and can also be found on Pitt s website The format is multiple choice each question will have 4 possible choices and there will be 35 questions The exam is worth a total of 100 points and will replace a lower score Many topics from the semester are not covered on the exam You are only responsible for the topics listed below Concepts to understand and be able to apply Topic 1 Research Methods the difference between correlation and causation correlation is a relationship causation is a cause effect relationship what a correlation coefficient means interpreting research findings it s the numerical expression of the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables From 1 00 to 1 00 perfect positive negative correlation If perfect pos neg then we can predict with total accuracy the results of one variable by knowing the other one If negative one gets higher as other gets lower Both positive and negative correlations are of equal strength one just predicts in the positive direction and the other in the negative direction positive isn t better 0 correlation means there is absolutely no relationship between variables one variable doesn t tell us anything about the other variable be able to identify independent variables dependent variables confounding variables experimental group control group placebo and experimenter bias in scenarios Confounding extraneous variables are NOT good they hurt experiment s validity Independent variable variable whose quantitative value is independently controlled by the researcher Allows comparison of participants behavior under different conditions Dependent variable variable whose quantitate value is expected to depend on the effects of independent variable May or may not be related to independent variable Experimental group group in an experiment that receives some value of the independent variable Placed in condition that is hypothesized to influence behavior of the participants Control group group in simple experiments that isn t exposed to any level of independent variables and is used for comparisons with the treatment group Placebo effect changes in behavior produced by a condition in a formal experiment thought to be inert or inactive such as an inactive pill experimenter bias subtle but potentially powerful unintentional influences on the dependent variable caused by experimenters interacting differently with participants in the experimental and control groups Topic 2 The Brain How neural transmission works including relevant parts of neuron Also be sure you understand the all or none principle and what was recently learned about it and action potentials including graded action potentials Parts of neuron nerve cell o Cell body central part of neuron that includes nucleus o Dendrites extensions of cell body that usually serve as receiving areas for messages from other neurons Neural transmission o Axons neuron branches that transmit messages to other neurons o More negative ions inside neurons and positive ones outside so neuron has overall negative charge polarized and it can change polarization because cell membrane is semi permeable can bring in Na sodium ions depolarization this creates chain of events known as action potential o In action potential small section of axon becomes permeable to positive Na ions they rush in to depolarize that part of axon Then the membrane pumps them back out and reestablishes polarization and the electrical storm from Na atoms coming in travels along length of axon anesthetics stop depolarization in axons that carry pain messages to brain o Myelin sheath insulating fatty covering wrapped around axon that speeds transmission of neural messages o Neurotransmitters and synaptic transmission Synapse space between axon of one neuron and another neuron Synaptic gap small space between two neurons at a synapse Neurotransmitters chemical substances produced by axons that transmit messages across synapse released by one neuron to signal next neuron Synaptic vesicles tiny vessels containing stored quantities of the neurotransmitter substance held in synaptic terminals of axon Synaptic terminal the knoblike tips of axons Receptor sites sites on the neuron that receive neurotransmitter substance All or none principle law that states that once a neural action potential is produced its magnitude is always the same meaning that neurons transmit signals to other neurons only when depolarization process during which positively charged ions flow into axon making it less negatively charged inside is strong enough to trigger an action potential brief electrical signal that travels the length of the axon We now know that that neurons often transmit messages through graded electrical potentials that vary in magnitude How synaptic transmission works including relevant parts of neuron and neurotransmitters Also understand the difference between excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters The capacity of the brain to process information is multiplied many times by the fact that not all neurotransmitters are excitatory some axons transmit inhibitory substances across synapses which makes it more difficult for the next neuron to fire Thus the brain is composed of a network of digital yes no circuits that process and create our experiences Neurotransmitters and synaptic transmission o Synapse space between axon of one neuron and another neuron o Synaptic gap small space between two neurons at a synapse o Neurotransmitters chemical substances produced by axons that transmit messages across synapse released by one neuron to signal next neuron o Synaptic vesicles tiny vessels containing stored quantities of the neurotransmitter substance held in synaptic terminals of axon o Synaptic terminal the knoblike tips of axon o Receptor sites sites on the neuron that receive neurotransmitter substance Functions of lobes of cortex frontal temporal parietal occipital Phineas Gage and patient J Z and what happened to them Cerebral