Study Guide Saturday January 31 2015 9 56 AM 1 Errors in personal inquiry and their solutions Inaccurate observation 2 Keystone of inquiry is observation Effect of priming Solution scientific observation A systematic and conscious activity which uses measurement devices 3 Overgeneralization Assumption that similar events are evidence of a general pattern Solution High value of large samples and replication repeating a study checking to see whether similar results are obtained each time 4 Selective Observation Once we make a decision we often only see and remember details that support our world view Play a role in the maintenance of prejudice Solution specify in advance the number and kind of observations to be made Illogical reasoning concerns the way we handle problems 5 6 The way we handle problems may contradict our judgments about the way things are Ex doctor tells patient they have genetic risks 7 Ideology and politics Can undermine objectivity in scholarly research Solution stay objective 2 4 purposes of research o Exploration Explore a specific problem o Description Ex exploring problems that have not been looked at yet Focused on the how of behavior phenomena Ex getting specifics on how crime is executed o Explanation Focused on why things occur o Application Focused on policy implications Ex why do people with low self control commit more crime o Evaluation evaluate if a certain program was effective reducing recidivism etc Policy problem analysis 2 types of support that must present before scientists can agree on the reality of something Importance of logical and empirical support in determining the scientific validity of a reality you have never experienced Theory definition formal vs substantive theory grounded theory Theory a set of interconnected statements or propositions that explain how two or more events or factors are related to one another Substantive theory is developed for a specific area and social concern To study test or develop substantive theory you can examine cases within the same substantive area For example you could observe several different gangs but not attempt to say anything about delinquency in general o Could be thought of as shared theories among experts in a certain subfield theory is developed for a broad conceptual area in general theory Formal If you want to study test or develop general theory you can compare cases within the same formal area Example To study crime you could examine various forms of crime o Hypothesis definition 3 conditions that must be met in order for a statement to be considered a hypothesis Hypothesis Theory Data Collection and Data Analysis an expectation about the nature of things derived from a theory Independent and dependent variables definitions Be able to identify them in a hypothesis considered the cause in a cause effect relationship variable in Independent variable IV independent variables are independent not associated with variation in other variables Dependent variable DV dependent variables are dependent contingent upon variation in independent variables considered the effect in a cause effect relationship variation in o o o o 4 different longitudinal designs cross sectional designs vs longitudinal designs strengths and weaknesses of both Cross sectional The most common form of analysis snapshot at a given time point More powerful for measuring change More costly and difficult Longitudinal Directly incorporates time More powerful for measuring change Longitudinal 4 general methods Time series study Panel study Cohort study Case study Attributes and variables definitions be able to identify them characteristics or qualities that describe some object o Attributes Example attributes of grad students smart geeky dominates at Halo exceptional time management skills sleep deprived loner o Variables logical groupings of attributes Examples gender prior record psychopathy low self control o Abuse violence Psychological physical Emotional short tempers easily angered Physical high of arrests Neglect prison record o considered the cause in a cause effect relationship variable in Independent variable IV independent variables are independent not associated with variation in other variables dependent variables are dependent contingent upon variation in independent variables considered the effect in a cause effect relationship variation in o Dependent variable DV o Inductive vs deductive reasoning o Deduction general to specific Leads to induction o Induction specific to general Ex Sherlock Holmes o Nomothetic vs idiographic explanation o Idiographic Model understanding of a particular instance seeks to identify many causes or associations to generate a complete Exhaustive list of all factors involved scope is limited o Nomothetic Model presumed to cause some class of outcomes tries to identify a relatively few number of the most important factors Importance of parsimony simple and probability o Different units of analysis be able to identify correct unit in a hypothesis individuals vs aggregates Aggregates combines actions and situations of many individuals Different common ethical concerns o No harm to participants o Have to weigh the possible benefits from doing research against the possibility of harm to the people being studied this is a fundamental ethical dilemma o Not always straightforward especially in experiments o Withholding beneficial treatment can also be considered harm Ex Minneapolis Domestic Violence Experiment 2 types of harm Physical and Psychological 3 groups at risk of physical harm Subject themselves Researchers 3rd parties Special problems with applied research Staff misbehavior Illegal behavior from staff Noncompliance from CJ associates e g police Research causes crime Empirical curiosity may promote offending behavior Crime displacement Withholding from desirable treatments Solution if preliminary findings suggest that a program is effective then the experiment should be interrupted Mandatory reporting Family violence and child abuse 3 principles for protecting human subjects o Have to protect the identity of those you study o Anonymity when the research cannot identify subjects o Confidentiality when the research will not disclose the subjects identities 2 purposes of institutional review boards o Make judgments about the overall risks to human subjects and whether these risks are o Determine whether the procedure to be used adequately guarantee the safety confidentiality acceptable 3
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