Hypothesis Testing Chapter 1 Define hypothesis is a testable prediction that describes a relationship that may exist between two events Define operational definition How research variables of interest are measured e g length of relationship activities per week etc Correlational Methods Define correlational research Tests to see whether two traits or behaviors are related to one another Correlation is used for prediction Correlation is not causation Define r r varies in the relationship between two factors ranging from 1 to 1 Strength strength of relationship ranges 0 to 1 and direction indicates positive or negative Describe two types of causal traps Saying a correlation is causation 1 Direction unknown 2 Third variable Examples direction unknown 1 Being married is correlated with happy marriage causes happiness 2 Height is positively correlated with scores on intelligence tests height causes people to be more intelligent third variable AGE Experimental Methods Experimental Research Studies that examine cause and effect relationships Experimental research studies examine cause and effect relationships by manipulating one or more factors while controlling for others Define independent variable The variable that we manipulate Define control variable factors that we hold constant female or male participants etc Define dependent variable factors that we measure to see the effect of the independent variable How do you reduce demand characteristics in experiments Cues that tell the participant how they are supposed to act limited by using a double blind procedure when the research participants and the research staff are ignorant about whether the participants have received the manipulation or not How do you limit the influence of pre existing group differences Using random assignment Is Psychology Just Common Sense Define Hindsight Bias We tend to think we knew things all along after the fact Our intuition gut instincts can be affected by Our own biases We need scientific evidence Chapter 2 Guided Notes Define self concept the overall idea of one s self answer to the question who am i What are some social determinants of our self concept 1 roles example teaching vs being taught being in leadership position 2 social comparisons example idealized images in magazines 3 other people s judgments example sense of humor based on how people have reacted to you 4 daily experiences mood 5 culture example how you feel after failing vs acing a test causes self concept to shift different norms traditions ways of interacting What does it mean to be an individualist Values the individual Identity defined in terms of personal attributes goals feelings What does it mean to be a collectivist Values the group identity defined in terms of their group identity and their relationship to others example I am an American part of a group I am a sister based on a relationship What are some collectivist goals Group goals community social harmony belongingness What are some individualist goals Achievement personal fulfillment self actualization autonomy How do individualists and collectivists differ in cognition Define Power Distance the extent to which we accept power and inequity and status differences high power distance accept large status differences among individuals low power distance expect equality across individuals calling everyone by first names Define Uncertainty Avoidance need for structure and rules High uncertainty avoidance more comfortable with strict rules in order to avoid uncertainty Low uncertainty avoidance more ok with uncertainty and tend to allow for many different opinions Define Masculinity Femininity what motivates people in the culture Driven by competition and aggression seen as stereotypical masculine Driven by caring for others and quality of life seen as feminine How would we categorize the U S on these dimensions Highly individualized Lower on power distance and uncertainty avoidance don t like strict rules and ok with uncertainty Relatively masculine culture more aggressive How do we feel about ourselves Define self esteem overall evaluation of oneself or sense of self worth comes from things you are good at feel confident in What are two reasons people try to have positive self esteem 1 help us fulfill out need to belong alerts us to social rejection of others and motivates us to regain acceptance 2 buffers against the thoughts of our own mortality if we feel like we made our mark on the world we are less scared of dying When can high self esteem be a bad thing High self esteem is related to good things like overall well being But general and frequent praise can lead to narcissism over inflated sense of importance entitlement little regard for others Narcissism high self esteem aggression above average self esteem found in violent criminals Define collective self esteem What is the cultural trade off hypothesis What type of self esteem is the best to have Secure self esteem stable and not dependent on external evaluations What type of praise is best for people to receive Praise people based on what they have done not just in general on specific things they have done well How good are we at explaining and predicting our behavior not good What We Know Define affective forecasts predictions of emotions feelings are often incorrect Define impact bias and give an example Impact bias we tend to overestimate the lasting effects of a situation Ex If I win the lottery or get an A all my problems will be solved Define immune neglect and give an example Immune neglect We underestimate our own resilience Ex If I fail this class my life will be over Define self serving bias tendency to perceive ourselves favorably affects how we perceive events compare ourselves to others perceive our future perceive our place in the world We tend to attribute positive outcomes to ourselves and negative outcomes to other factors Ex Doing well on exams im really smart doing badly test was too hard instructor sucks The Lake Wobegon Effect shows that most people think Tendency to think we are better than the average person on various characteristics Surveys show we think we are More ethical more honest smarter better looking more likely to go to heaven We tend to be unrealistic in our optimism Ex Contraceptive use pregnancy predictions recession realities Is it bad to be optimistic about future No but you need a balance High optimism is helpful paired with defensive pessimism using realistic negative
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