Comm 309-Exam 1 Review Why Communicate?- it can satisfy human needs - four functions of comm: 1. information 2. entertainment 3. instruction 4. persuasion o functions are often mixed o all can occur in same communication - Comm can occur at many levels:o intrapersonal o interpersonalo small group o organizational o public o mass - how we get info has changed over time - we watch the same material, but it is being viewed differently Society’s Influence on Media - mass media do not exist in a vacuum - society’s regulate certain things in media - cultural and political context shapes its nature and function - mass media systems differ greatly from society to society - major restrictions are for childrenDebate Over the Media’s Influence - industry: no negative effects, only positive effects (entertainment)- critics: harmful negative effects (especially on children and adolescents)- researchers: some people some time under certain situations o these three groups battle with their conclusionsWays to Study Media - content- exposure - effects o effects we can measure: behavioral  attitudinal  cognitive-thoughts and beliefs physiological-heart rate, blood pressure, brain activity o effect can be: direct effects model: all members react the same, processes it in the same manner and has same behavior  conditional effects model: effects some of the people, some of the time, under some conditions (general model that is used now)  cumulative effects model: don’t think about effects as one particular viewing, itscumulative viewing over time  third person effect: I can view this material, but others might not be able to; underestimating the effect on oneself Dimensions of Media Effects- Micro (individual) and Macro (societal) Level - intended (advertising) or unintended (byproducts) effects- Content-dependent (violence, aggression) and content-irrelevant (nothing to do with content; ex: media and obesity)- short (immediately after) and long term (20 or 30 years) effects - reinforcement (happens to most; easier to reinforce someone’s attitudes) and change (harder tochange a person’s attitude) Major Research Methods - Survey (know margin of error)- Content Analysis - Correlational Study: does not determine causality - Experiment-can determine causality; random assignment Triangulation - 3 methods are used to determine a cause - if I want to feel comfortable about media violence (or whatever) I look for different types of methods and hope they are all pointing in same direction Meta-Analysis - a means of systematically integrating the findings from many empirical studies - used to provide the big picture - magnitude of effect - direction of effect Theories that Explain Media Effects - Social Cognitive Theory-learn how to behave by observing others (media); learn scripts about behavior (stored in memory) - Priming Effects- short term effects; see something it primes you to think about it - Excitation Transfer- if I am aroused, I will transfer this arousal to another situation (but you labelit as one thing/event)- Cultivation- heavy viewers of media tend to take on a perception of the world that the media portrays- Uses and Gratifications- we choose certain types of media because it satisfies certain needs we have - Agenda Setting- media sets what we think and talk about; traditional gatekeepers don’t exist todayChildren and Teens and the Media - Generation M: - minority groups use the media slightly more-use more mobile technology Infants and Media - under 2 - no understanding of what is in front of them in terms of media - AAP says that children under 2 should NOT watch TV- they need positive nurturing time with adults and other children - no evidence of positive benefits of TV for this age groupAre Children and Adolescents Different in How they are Affected by the Media?- developmental changes affect the processing of media o changes occur gradually not abruptly o ages can differ when these changes occur (younger children are ages 2-7; older children are 8-12; adolescents are 13-18)- younger children view media differently o pay attention to perceptual features; not plot o difficulty with fantasy and reality distinctions o less capable of linking scenes together Media Violence: Content and Effects- Is there violence in the media? (yes) - What content is of concern? (most material doesn’t show pain or harm, not realistic, most violent characters are attractive)- What does research say? (for some children, it has an effect under certain conditions) - What theories account for effects? (modeling and priming as major ones)- Why are the effects denied? (small effect sizes, only causal)High Risk Portrayals - attractive perpetrator - violence that is justified - violence that goes unpunished - violence that shows no pain or harm - violence that seems realistic to viewer o What are the effects?  aggression  fear (the more I watch, the more fearful I come that this is a scary world) desensitization (less emotionally bothered)Perception of Realism and Identification with Aggressor - Huesmann Longitudinal Studies - the best predictor of aggressive predictor from age 6-10 and its effects 15 years later: how muchviolence they watched, how much they thought the violence was real, and how much they identified with the aggressor Video Game Mechanisms (that differ from other violent media)- identification with the aggressor - active participation - repetitive actions - reinforcement for aggressive actions o Effects: effects are there - four key questions about violent video games1. is the research evidence consistent? –yes 2. is there causal evidence? –yes 3. is there evidence of effects on seriously aggressive behavior? – no 4. is there good theory? –yes Sexual Content and Effects - what type of sexual portrayals exist- lots of talk about sex occurs on TV more than behaviors- Concerns? –rarely are consequences or risks shown - Contraception on TV- doesn’t occur - Are there effects from embedded and non-explicit portrayals? –those who tend to watch a lot ofsexual material, greater likelihood they will engage in sexual behavior earlier Prosocial Effects - “ER” and “Friends”- some shows have positive effects Obscenity and Pornography - obscenity-not protected by 1st Amendment - obscene: goes beyond contemporary community standards, community finds it offensive, has no artistic value - Porn is not obscene - 3 commission:1. Presidential