Comm 309-Week 2 Notes (Lecture 3)Theories of Media Effects What Theories Might We Use To Explain Media Effects?- *look at Chapter 12*- Social Cognitive Theory (part of broader Social Learning Theory)o How we process infoo Traits Unique to Humans: Symbolizing Capacity: ability to use and understand symbols and use these in cognitive models for the future Self-Regulatory Capacity: the ability to evaluate oneself  Vicarious Capacity: the ability to learn from the experience of others (mass media) o Observational Learning A person learns by observing the actions of others and the consequences of those actions o Modeling The learning of behavior 4 Processes involved:1. Attention-must observe the model 2. Retention-behavior must be remembered and stored 3. Must have motor reproduction 4. Motivation-can occur from direct or vicarious rewards o Abstract Modeling  New situations generate new behavior adapted from rules of behavior learned previously o Bandura and Modeling  Early research- Schema (Script) Theory o A schema is a general mental construct or model about some knowledge domaino Cognitive scripts: if you go to a restaurant there is a “script” that you follow  Cognitive scripts develop as a results of observational learning and direct experience Media can create and change these scripts Scripts tend to be resistant to change (last into adulthood)  With repeated exposure to media, scripts are maintained and reinforced Research Areas- Media violence- Violent video games- Stereotyping- Risk related behaviors (eating disorders, unprotected sex) Learning Good Things From Mass Media- Sesame Street- Barney - Gullah, Gullah Island- Blue’s Clues - Mister Rogers- Contact Priming Effects - Exposure to mass media activates related thoughts that have been stored in memory- Certain things activate priming - *Think of Cowboy, Saddle, and Horse* (now tell the word with the missing letter: RO_E)- Variables that enhance priming effects:o Intervening variables-1. The perceived meaning of the communication 2. The extent to which audiences identify with the characters 3. The perceived reality of the mediated communication –important for children 4. Prior experiences - Recent Research:o Effects of mediated violence on the priming of aggressive thoughtso Priming effects through: Viewing violent content Sexual content Excitation Transfer - Physiological arousal dissipates relatively slowly- Arousal generated from one event can be added to the arousal associated with a subsequent event (as long as the two events are temporarily close)- Intensified level of arousal for the latter event - Ex: you’re running and then someone angers you; you transfer arousal from one event to the other Cultivation Theory - Initiated in 1967 by George Gerbner - Investigates the cultivation effect- Cultivation hypothesis:o For people who watch a lot of TV the real world starts to resemble the world of TV - Conceptual Roots of the Cultivation Hypothesis o TV is the great storyteller of our ageo Mainstreaming: Heaving TV viewers absorb attitudes and beliefs that are presented repetitively on TVo Resonance  When real world events support the distorted image of reality shown on TV (those who live in inner cities have higher fear of crime) o Assumptions: Messages are relatively uniform-all shows are somewhat similar Viewing TV is non-selective TV viewing is habitual o Research Tradition  Content analysis  Survey methods Uses and Gratifications Theory - Assumes that differences among audience members cause each person to:o Seek out different messageso Use those messages differently o Respond to them differently - Dependency on the media is the result of two factors:1. Viewer’s motives for obtaining gratifications (looking for entertainment)2. The availability of viewing alternatives (I do not have cable or Internet, therefore TV is utilized) - Certain elements in the society cause people to use and depend upon the media (Twitter and Facebook for info)- Assumptions:o Viewers are active participantso Media selection is goal directedo Media is used for gratifications (info, entertainment, etc.)o Social and psychological factors mediate people’s communication behavior-are we addicted to certain media? (Internet) Agenda Setting Theory - The media determines the importance placed upon particular issues - “The press may not be successful much of the time in telling people what to think, but it is stunningly successful in telling its readers what to think about” (Cohen) - Gatekeeping: control exercised by media professionals over the flow of news info (now anyone can be a gatekeeper)- Media agenda sources:o Many influences create the media agenda each day: Social norms and values of journalists Organizational constraints such as deadlines and limits of time and space Pressures from social movement organizations and interest groups - Recent research and future trendso News sources that set media agendas-new technology? o *quote on slides*(Lecture 4) Audience Use and Developmental Differences Do We Use The Media?- Today’s youth are confronted with a media environment that is very different from the one faced by their parents- Proliferation of media outlets and technologies - Today’s “screen” has different meaning (it used to mean TV, now it is more computer)- New media technologies “blur” the distinction between reality and the media- We can enter “virtual worlds” (but it changes lots of things we used to talk about, in terms of content)- Media is far more interactive and engaging - You ARE the aggressor Do Children and Teens Use the Media?- Generation M: media in the lives of 8 to 18 year olds - *all graphs on d2l* - Among all 8 to 18 year olds, total amount of media exposure in a typical day, over time:o 1999: 7:51o 2004: 8:33o 2009: 10:45- Total amount of media exposure in a typical day, by age:o 8-10 year olds: 7:51o 11-14 year olds: 11:53o 15-18 year olds: 11:23- Among all 8 to 18 year olds, amount of time spent with each medium in a typical day:o The most is TV content (4:29 hours)- Among all 8 to 18 year olds, percent who own each item:o In 2004: Ipod/MP3 player: 18% Cell phone: 39% Laptop: 12%o In 2009: Ipod: 76% Cell phone: 66% Laptop: 29%- Nearly half of 18-34 year olds have smartphones - Percent of age group who own a smartphone:o 12-17: 33%o 18-24: 45%o 25-34: 50%o 35-44: 39%o 45-54: 26: o 55-64: 19%o