Short Term/Working memoryModal model of Atkinson & Shiffrin (1968) (aka multi-store model)a model of memory that has the advantage of being able to be broken down into sub-models of memorySensory memory (SM)Short-term memory (STM)Long-term memory (LTM)Sensory Storeconsidered to be outside of cognitive and is instead an automatic response; raw data; provides snapshots of a person’s overall sensory experienceSperling 1960the discovery of iconic memory; he used a matrix with three rows of letters. Participants of the study were asked to look at the letter, for a brief period of time, and then recall them immediately afterwards.Technique is called Free Recall – it showed that participants were able to, on average, recall 4-5 letters of the 9 they were given.Sperling believed that all 9 letters were stored in the viewer’s memory for a short period of time, but the memory failed so rapidly that only 4 or 5 letters could actually be recalled.ICONIC MEMORYCued Recall Experiment – similar to free recall, however, instead of allowing participants to recall any of the letters, it would allow them to view the same matrix for the same amount of time, and then hear a pitch corresponding to a different row in the matrix. The view was to recall the letters in that corresponding row.Whole Report – a condition in the experiment where participants were required to recall as many elements from the original display in their proper spatial locations as possible.Partial Report – this condition required participants to identify a subset of the characters from the visual display using CUED RECALL. The cue was a tone which sounded at various time intervals, following the offset of the stimulus.Delayed Partial Report – the presentation of cue tones was delayed for a fraction of a second, after the letters were extinguished.Short Term Memory(aka primary or active memory) the capacity for holding a small amount of information in mind in an active readily available state for a short period of time.Limited in Capacity (aka memory span)the limit to amount of new information that we can retain over brief periods of time. George Miller suggests that human STM has a forward memory span of approx. 7 items, plus or minus 2.Limited in Durationcontent spontaneously decays over time; new content gradually pushes out older content, unless the older content is actively protected against interference by rehearsal or by directing attention to it.Chunkingthe process by which one can expand his/her ability to remember things in the short term; a process by which a person organizes material in meaningful groups.Chunking can greatly increase a person’s recall capacityRemembering phone numbers by chunking the numbers into three different groupsChase & Simon 1973recruited three participants of varying chess skill for their study (one master, one class A, one beginner). Each participant completed two different tasks involving side-by-side chessboards with a divider between them. The left board presented a different configuration each trial and the right board was used by the participants to make responses.Perception taskparticipants were asked to recreate 14 game configurations, completely each as quickly and accurately as possible.Memory taskparticipants viewed an additional 14 game configurations for only five seconds and needed to recreate each configuration from memory.It was found that recall ability increased with chess skill, but only for recreations of actual configurations (not with random)It was hypothesized that expert memory advantage was specific to actual configurations because experts saw chessboards in term of familiar chunks.IVs: skill level, board typeDV : accuracy reproducing boardForgetting from timethe loss of information from memory as a consequence of die passage of time and lack of use. It has been suggested that memory is stored in memory traces, which disappear when not used for a long time.Forgetting from interferencethe confusion of one piece of information with another of the suppression of one in favor of another that was processed about the same timeProactive interferenceoccurs if previously learned material interferes with learning of new materialRetroactive interferenceoccurs if learning of new material interferes with the ability to recall previously learned material.Wickens et al 1976Short term memory is not limited to acoustic-articularly code. Semantic codes are also used in storing materal in STM. Wickens et al presented three words n each trial, followed by backward counting to prevent their rehearsal. Each triad of words came from the same semantic category (type of fruit) on the first three trials.Recall decreased systematically on the first three trials as it becomes more and more difficult to remember which specific fruits had been [resented on a particular triad.On the fourth trial, there was an improvement in recall for those receiving a new category.Semantic codes are used in STM – the father apart the categories are in meaning, the greater the release.Peterson & Peterson 1959wanted to investigate the duration of STM and provide empirical evidence for the multi-store model.24 participants had to recall trigrams (meaningless three-consonant syllables). To prevent rehearsal participants were asked to count backwards in threes or fours from a specified random number until they saw a red light. (Brown Peterson technique)Participants were asked to recall trigrams after intervals of 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, or 18 secondsThe longer the interval delay, the less trigrams were recalled.STM has a limited duration when rehearsal is prevented.Waugh & Normanused a probe-digit task. Participants were given lists of 16 digits in which the probe digit appeared only once. They were asked not to rehearse the previous digits, but rather to concentrate on the digit they had just heard at any given time. They were then probed at the end of the list with the digit and asked to report which digit followed it in the list.Results showed that forgetting varied with the number of digits presented between the probe and the end of the list, but not with the time between the probe and the end of the list.This suggests that forgetting was interference based rather than time based.Baddeley’s Working Memory Modelin response to Atkinson’s and Shriffin’s model, they argued that the picture of short term memory (STM) provided by the Multi-Store Model is much too simple.Instead of all the information