Science and Scientific ThinkingScience entails collecting observations, data, from the real world and evaluating whether thedata supports our ideas or not.Common sense (the nutuive ability to understand the world).Rationalism● The view that using logic and reason is the way to understand how the world works.What is science?● Physical science(physics, astronomy, chemistry geology)● Biological science (biology, zoology, genetics, botany)● Social science (anthropology, sociology, economics, and psychology)Scientific thinking:● Keep belief and evidence distinct (doubt your idea first, then blindly acceptit)(belief is not the same as reality)● Make testable claims (forming testable hypotheses)● Evaluate the strengths and weaknesses of the evidence (judge the techniquesand methods)● Try to disconfirm your idea after it has been confirmed (weak ideas fail; strongones remain) (findings can only be trusted once they stand the test of multipleattempts to confirm or disconfirm them).○ The repetition of a study to confirm the results; essential to the scientificprocess.● Have your belief follow the best evidence. (if the evidence goes against the idea,then you move towards skepticism, if not you go towards your belief)The scientific method● Scientific thinking involves the interplay between belief (theory) and evidence(research)● Validity○ The degree to which a test accurately measures what it purports tomeasure, such as intelligence, and not something else, and the degree towhich it predicts real-world outcomes.● Reliability○ The consistency of a measurement, such as an intelligence test.● Hypothesis○ A specific, informed, and testable prediction of the outcome of a particularset of conditions in a research design.● Scientific Method○ The procedures by which scientists conduct research, consisting of sixbasic processes: observation, prediction, testing, interpretation,communication, and replication (OPTICR).○ Observe, Predict, Test, Interpret, Communicate, Replicate● Theory○ A set of related assumptions from which scientists can make testablepredictions.Pseudoscience● Claims presented as scientific that are not supported by evidence obtained withthe scientific method.● Pseudoscience practitioners:○ Make no real advances in knowledge○ Disregard well-known and established facts that contradict their claims○ Do not challenge or question their own assumptions○ Tend to offer voyage or incomplete explanations of how they came to theirconclusions○ Tend to use unsound logic in making their argumentsResearch Design in PsychologyResearch Designs● Plans of action for how to conduct a scientific study.Variable● A characteristic that changes, or “varies,” such as age, gender, weight,intelligence, anxiety, and extraversion.Population● The entire group a researcher is interested in—for example, all humans, alladolescents, all boys, all girls, all college students.Samples● Subsets of the population studied in a research project.Descriptive design● Study designs in which the researcher defines a problem and variable of interestbut makes no prediction and does not control or manipulate anything.● What is X?● Exploratory phase of research● How do people flirt? (questions researched)● Method: case study, observation, survey, or interviews/qualitative research● Use: To find patterns that might lead to predictions for more complete researchproject● Limitation: hypotheses are not tested (cannot look at cause and effect)Case study● A study design in which a psychologist, often a therapist, observes oneperson over a long period of time.Naturalistic observation● A study in which the researcher unobtrusively observes and records behavior inthe real world.Interviews● A study in which the researcher unobtrusively observes and records behavior inthe real world.● open -ended questionsQuantitative research● A study in which the researcher unobtrusively observes and records behavior inthe real world.● Interviews are an example● open-ended and flexible answersQualitative research● Research that collects information using any kind of numeric and quantifiablescale and often has limited response options.Representative sample● A research sample that accurately reflects the population of people one isstudying.Sampling● The procedure researchers use to obtain participants from a population.Correlational designs● Studies that measure two ormore variables and theirrelationship to one another; notdesigned to show causation.● Is X related to Y?● When the experimenter cannotmanipulate or control thevariables● Used for developmentalpsychology, personalitypsychology, clinical psychologyCorrelation coefficients● Statistics that range from –1.0 to +1.0 and assess the strength and direction ofassociation between two variables.Experiment● A research design that includes independent and dependent variables andrandom assignment of participants to control and experimental groups orconditions.● Experimental manipulation of a predicted cause, the independent variable● Rando, assignment of participants to control and experimental groups orconditions (equal chance)Independent variable (cause)● A property that is manipulated by the experimenter under controlled conditions todetermine whether it causes the predicted outcome of an experiment.Dependent variable (effect)● In an experiment, the outcome or response to the experimental manipulation.Random assignment● The method is used to assign participants to different research conditions, so thatall participants have the same chance of being in any specific group.Experiment group● A group consisting of those participants who will receive the treatment orwhatever is predicted to change behavior.Control group● A group of research participants who are treated in exactly the same manner asthe experimental group, except that they do not receive the independent variable,or treatment.Placebo● A substance ortreatment thatappears identical tothe actual treatmentbut lacks the activesubstance.Single-blind studies● Studies in which participants do not know the experimental condition (group) towhich they have been assigned.Double-blind studies● Studies in which neither the participants nor the researchers administering thetreatment know who has been assigned to the experimental or control group.Experimenter expectancy effects● A result that occurs when the behavior of the