The Cryosphere- Frozen Places on the EarthPermafrost – Always frozen up to 20% of northern land areasFrost Heaving – Soils containing that expands when frozen, moving soil upwardIce Wedges – Cracks formed by a narrow piece of ice that extends downwards into the ground upMeltwater lakes – upper part of lake is melted but can refreeze, below is frozen to prevent drainageSea Ice – Formed by freezing of seawater (alters sea water density)Ice Shelves – thick floating platform of ice near the coastline of a glacierGlaciers- Body of ice that moves over land/water and forms from accumulationTypes of GlaciersGlacial Erosion - Plucking – glaciers break material underneath, transporting them - Abrasion – Frozen material scour away underneath until reaches bedrock (leaving glacial striations- Crevasse – Form in the upper layer of ice (brittle level)- Till is deposited as glacial ice melts and drops its load of rock fragmentsGlacial Moraine - Terminal Moraine – end of the moraine- Lateral Moraine – Side of the moraine- Medial Moraine – Created by two lateral morainesGlacial Deposition - Glacial Erratico Unique rock carried by a glacial formation- Esker – Long, winding ridge of sand and gravel- Drumlin – a hill of till streamlined in the direction of continental ice movement- Roche Moutonnee – Rock hill smooth shaped by the passage of ice on one side, other side is plucked and rough- Tarn – Glacial lake in a cirque basin behind ridges of rock material - Pater Noster – Small series of lakes down a valley- Kettle Lakes – Scattered lake- Fjord – A long narrow, deep inlet of the sea between high cliffs (flooded glacial valley)Ocean Basin- Mid Ocean Ridges – Undersea volcanic mountains, areas of faults and earthquakes- Abyssal Plains – Vast horizontal plains on the seafloor (about 4-5km deep)- Seamount – mountains/volcanoes rising that does not reach the water surface- Atolls – A ring of seamounts with a lagoon inside- Guyot – Ring of seamounts underwaterOcean Trenches – Deepest part of the ocean basin, usually adjacent to volcanic chains or islandsOcean Margins - Continental Margin – Shallow portions of the ocean, marginal to the continentsEstuaries – Where seawater and river water mixSubmarine Canyon – Deeply cut canyon into the continental shelfCharacteristics of seawaterSalinity – number of grams of salts dissolved in 1000g of waterSurface water salinity averages 35%Surface water is warm and doesn’t want to sinkThermocline – Abrupt Temperature change, layer beneath the mixed layer of waterPycnocline – layer where the density gradient is greatest within a body of watero Zone of rapid change in water densityo Dominated by temp. but impacted by salinitySinking surface water brings oxygen and nutrients to the bottomSurface Currents  Driven by WindSubsurface flow (deep ocean)  Driven by densityFetch  Distance the wind blows overOceanic Gyres- Gyre – Large, rotating system of currentso Driven by global wind beltso Set into rotation by the Coriolis effectThe BIG FIVE- North Pacific - CW- South Pacific - CCW- North Atlantic - CW- South Atlantic - CCW- Indian Ocean - CCWCircumpolar Current – Flows West to East around Antarctica- Geostrophic Balance – Oceanic flow where pressure gradient force is balanced by the Coriolis effect. o Geostrophic flow is parallel to the isobars and perpendicular to both forcesWestern boundary current – fast, deep, and narrowEastern boundary current – slow, shallow, and broadTrade wind-driven current – moderately shallow and broad westward currentWesterly-driven current – wider and slower than trade wind currentEl Nino Southern Oscillation - Periodic warming of waters off the South American Pacific Coast- Sort of discovered by Sir Gilbert Walker (relationship between variable air pressure readings)ENSO – Phenomenon that weather patterns from Peru to Australia (Around the globe)Impactso Sea surface tempo Trade windso Changes in precipitationo Alteration in upwellingCycle- Neutral: Some cool water migrates west- El Nino: Weak trade winds allow warming in the Eastern Pacific- La Nina: Strong trade winds move colder water to the Western Pacific Deep Ocean Circulation - Surface water becomes saltier when ice forms  Freezing water rejects salt- Surface: Warm and oxygen rich- North Atlantic Deep Water, Antarctic Intermediate Water: Cold, salty, oxygen rich- Antarctic Bottom Water: Super cold and salty  DensestThe Great Ocean “Conveyor Belt” - affects weather and climate by circulating thermal energy around Earth- Heinrich Events – Rapid Cooling coincident, large icebergs break off from glaciers and transverse the North