ANIMAL BEHAVIOR EXAM ICHAPTER 1: INTRODUCTION TO ANIMAL BEHAVIOR1.) WHAT IS AN ANIMAL?Animal Characteristics:1. Multicellular (not exclusive to animals)2. Consume food (heterotrophic)3. Mobile (at some point in their life)- Some cnidarians that lead mostly sessile lives at some point are free living- Animals have muscles and nerves that help them move4. Exhibit embryonic development (Hox genes are present)o Gastrulation Sphere of cells is a blastula During gastrulation, some cells move inward Three-layer embryo is producedo Protostome: first hole (blastopore) that develops is the mouth More mature animal Most animals are protostomes Mollusks, annelids, arthropods The eight-cell stage is determinateo Deuterostome: second hole that develops is the mouth, the first is the anus Anus develops from blastopore Echinoderms and chordates The eight-cell stage is indeterminateo Hox Genes Group of related genes that determine the basic structure and orientation of an organism Critical for proper placement of segment structures of animals during early embryonic development5. Most animals reproduce with mobile sperm and nutrient-rich eggs2.) PROXIMATE VERSUS ULTIMATEErnst Mayr: proposed that animal behavior causation can be examined on TWO different levels of Proximate and Ultimate levels.Proximate: factors operate in the day-to-day lives of individuals- What mechanism enables the organism to exhibit the behavior?- Proximate causation: the immediate mechanism or how a behavior is expressed is the proximate cause- May be internal processes or environmental stimuli - Limits the range of behaviors upon which natural selection can act- Produce behaviors that ultimately evolved because they increased fitnessUltimate: factors encompass births and deaths of many generations or even entire taxa- In terms of evolution, how and why did that behavior come to be?- Why does the behavior exist?- Ultimate causation: the evolutionary reason for the existence of a behavior. Inother words, why the behavior is expressed. Examples:Behavior: a bluegill sunfish breeds in the spring and early summerProximate Cause: breeding is triggered by the effect of increased day length on a fish’s pineal glandUltimate Cause: breeding is most successful when water temperatures and food supplies are optimalBehavior: human sweet toothProximate Cause: sweet taste buds are a proximate mechanism that increasesthe chances of eating high-energy foodsUltimate Cause: sweet, high-energy foods were rare prior to mechanized agriculture. Increased fitness associated with consuming these foods is the ultimate reason for the natural selection of a sweet tooth. Behavior: Monarch Butterfly Reproduction. West Coast Butterflies spend winter in CA in diapause. They disperse northward and lay eggs on milkweed.Proximate: since monarch butterflies are cold-blooded, they will become dormant in colder temperatures. Ultimate: fitness is increased when butterflies migrate southward during winterProximate: the milkweed carries poison and the poison is transferred to the monarch butterfly and also protects the eggsUltimate: fitness is increased because of the protection provided by the poison by the milkweed3.) PROXIMATE AND ULTIMATE CAUSATION FOUR LEVELSNiko Tinbergen: suggested that proximate and ultimate can be further divided into two levels eachProximate: Answers the question “How?” Ontogeny and PhysiologyUltimate: Answers the question “Why?” Fitness and PhylogenyExample: Stickleback courtship behaviorEvolution Question: How has courtship behavior evolved in the species? Is it shown by other species of sticklebacks?Development Question: How does courtship behavior develop during the individual’s lifetime? Does the male learn the zigzag dance? Does he practice dancing? Is the male successful in directing the female to the nest the first time he dances?Cause Question: What causes the male to dance? Are there internal factors that increase the male’s tendency to dance? Does increasing daylength in spring increase the males’ tendency to dance? Does the swollen belly of a female elicit dancing in males?Function Question: Why does the male dance in a particular way? Why does the female prod the female once she has entered the nest? Why does the malefan the eggs? How do these behaviors contribute to the reproductive success of the individual and ultimately the survival of the species?4.) A MORE DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE LEVELS OF ANALYSISProximate Causes- Genetic: developmental mechanismso Effects of heredity on behavioro Development of sensory-motor systems via gene-environment interactions- Sensory-motor mechanismso Nervous systems for the detection of environmental stimulio Hormone systems for adjusting responsiveness to environmental stimulio Skeletal-muscular systems for carrying out responsesUltimate Causes- Historical pathways leading to a current behavioral trait o Events occurring over evolution from the origin of the trait to present- Selective processes shaping the history of a behavioral traito Past and current usefulness of the behavior in promoting lifetime reproductive success5.) IMPLICATIONS OF THE MAYR-TINBERGEN MODEL OF CAUSALITY- Competition among alternative hypothesis occurs WITHIN and NOT BETWEEN the four analytical levels- At least 4 potentially correct answers to any question about causality are possible because explanations at one level of analysis COMPLEMENT rather than supersede those at anotherCHAPTER 2: HISTORY OF ANIMAL BEHAVIOR1.) INTRODUCTION- Humans have been manipulating and observing animals for thousands of years- This has been done through artificial selection and domestication2.) CLASSICAL GRECO-ROMAN TIMES- Animals were observed and their behavior recorded. In some cases, the recorded behaviors were accurate but others showed a high degree of anthropomorphism.- Medieval bestiaries were designed to illustrate moral lessons for illiterate European Christians3.) THREE MAJOR DEVELOPMENTS OF ANIMAL BEHAVIORThree major developments in the 19th Century that contributed to the study of animal behavior are:- Publication of the theory of evolution by natural selection- Development of a systematic comparative method- Studies in genetics and inheritance4.) BEFORE DARWIN - It was well understood that the living organisms have changed over time and that the earth was more than 6,000 years old. What was not understood was the mechanism of change. - The idea of adaptation to