PSYC 104 1st EditionExam #2 Study Guide Units: 6 - 7, 9 Unit 6 vocabClassical Conditioning- a neutral stimulus is associated with another stimulus that produces a behavior (example: PTSD)Unconditioned Stimulus- the trigger for a natural occurring responseUnconditioned Response- naturally occurring response, which follows the unconditioned stimulusConditioned Stimulus- a neutral stimulus that is presented prior to the unconditioned stimulus, which evokes a reaction similar to the response to the unconditioned stimulusExtinction- this is the decline in response to the conditioned stimulus when it is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulusSpontaneous Recovery- increase response to the conditioned stimulus following a pause after extinctionGeneralization- responding to the stimuli that looks like the conditioned stimulusDiscrimination- responding differently to stimuli that is similar but not the sameSecond-Order Conditioning- when a conditioned stimulus serves as an unconditioned stimulus for a pairing with a new conditioned stimulusPhobia- an irrational fear to somethingOperant Conditioning- learning that happens based on the consequence of a behaviorLaw of Effect- when a response creates a good outcome you are more likely to do it again in order to create the same outcome, as well as when responses create an unpleasant outcome you are less likely to do that againSkinner Box- a structure that contains a bar or key that an animal can press in order to get food as well as a device to keep track of the animal’s responseReinforcer- an event that increases the chances of a behaviorPunisher- an event that decreases the chances of a behaviorContinuous reinforcement schedule- reinforcing a desired response every timePartial (intermittent) reinforcement schedule- reinforcing a desired response only some timesFixed-interval schedule- reinforcement that occurs for the first reaction made after an amount of time passesVariable-interval schedule- reinforcers on an interval scheduleFixed-ratio schedule- behavior is reinforced after a certain number of responsesPrimary Reinforcer- the stimuli that is preferred by the organism (food)Secondary Reinforcer (conditioned reinforcer)- an event that is associated with the primary reinforce through classical conditioning (whistle associated with food)Insight- understanding of a solutionLatent learning- not reinforced or demonstrated until there is motivation Unit 7 vocabMemory- our ability to store, acquire, and retrieve info and habitsExplicit Memory- knowledge or experiences that are intentionally rememberedEpisodic Memory- first-hand experiences had on a daily basisSemantic Memory- knowledge/facts about the worldRecall Test- measures explicit memory (example: essay test)Recognition Memory Test- measures memory to determine if we have seen certain information beforeRelearning-how much information is processed or learned after forgetting it and relearning itImplicit Memory- influence of experience on behavior even if you are not awareProcedural Memory- knowledge of how to do something often unexplainableClassical Conditioning Effects- associating neutral stimuli with another stimulus, which createsa reaction all while unaware it is happeningPriming- changing a behavior because of an experience that happened multiple timesSensory Memory- concise storage of sensory informationIconic Memory- visual sensory memory (first studied by George Sperling)Echoic Memory- auditory sensory memoryShort Term Memory- where small amounts of information are held (usually for less than a minute)Working Memory- using things in our short term memoryCentral Executive- in working memory- directs attentiveness and managingMaintenance Rehearsal- restating information mentally or out loud in order to help remember itChunking- organizing information in small groupsLong-Term Memory- information can be held for days, months, years- large capacity- no limitEncoding- putting experiences into our memoryElaborative Encoding- process information in ways that make it more memorable Spacing Effect- learning is better when studying the same amount over time than short and closetogetherOverlearning- practicing and studying mastered materialRetrieval- reactivating information we already storedTip-of-the-tongue Phenomenon- failure to retrieve information properly Context-dependent Learning- increase in retrieval when the external situation matches the situation remember Primacy Effect- remembering things present early in a listRecency Effect- remembering things present late in a listRetroactive Interference- learning new information that damages our ability to remember information we learned in the pastProactive interference- past learning damages our ability to encode later information Categories- associated memoriesPrototype- most typical member in a category Schemas- arrangements of information in the long-term memory that help us shape new informationLong-term Potentiation- reinforcement of the synaptic networks between neurons as a result of frequent stimulationPeriod of Consolidation- LTP occurs during this time and memories are storedHippocampus- stores memory- preprocessor of informationCerebellum- implicit memories Amygdala- emotional memoriesCognitive Biases- errors in our memory that are caused by inappropriate use of cognitive processesMisinformation Effect- errors in memory due to new information influencing existing memoriesSource monitoring- ability to accurately identify a source of your memorySleeper Effect- forgetting the source of informationOverconfidence- people rely too much on their ability to remember eventsFlashbulb Memory- a vivid memory of a rare event that people think they remember correctlyConfirmation Bias- confirming our existing memory instead or challenging itFunctional Fixedness- when your schema prevents you from using something in a new wayHeuristics- processing strategies that are useful in certain cases but often lead to error when misusedAlgorithms- information processing strategiesRepresentativeness Heuristic- information that represents what we think will happen and we ignore other information that could be usefulGambler’s Fallacy- people who think if they see something happen multiple time sin a row that it will happen again even when the chances are really still 50/50Probability- chance of something happeningAvailability Heuristic- making a decision that something happens on the basis of the ease with which it can be recovered