Question 4What are the four forces of development?Bio-psychosocial framework:With life-cycle factors; provides complete overview of the shapers of human developmentEach person is a product of a unique combo of these forces1.BiologicalAll genetic and health related factors that affect developmentEx. menopause, wrinkling2. PsychologicalAll internal, perceptual, cognitive, emotional and personality factors that affect developmentEx. characteristics that make people individual/unique (being and introvert/extrovert, being an over-thinker, being a procrastinator, being optimistic/pessimistic)3.socioculturalInterpersonal, societal, cultural, and ethnic factors that affect developmentEx. SES, race, economy etc.4. Life-cycle forcesReflect differences in how the same event or combo of bio, psychological, and sociocultural forces affects people at different points in their livesQuestion 5What are the three types of normative influences?Normative age-graded influences: experiences caused by biological, psychological, and sociocultural forces, that occur to most people of a particular age- major time marked evens, often ritualized (AKA-life-story)Ex. puberty, menopause (normative biological)Ex. middle aged persons concern with socializing with the younger generation (psychological normative)Ex. time of first marriage, and time of retirement, celebrating ones 21st birthday (sociocultural normative)Normative history-graded influences: events that most people in a specific culture experience at the same timeGive a generation its unique identity (baby-boomers, millennials)May be biological, psychological or socioculturalEx. epidemics (biological)Ex. stereotypes (psychological)Ex. changing attitudes toward sexuality (sociocultural)Non-normative influences: random/rare events that may be important for a specific individual but are not experienced by most peopleUnpredictability of events makes them uniqueFavorable events:Ex. winning the lotteryUnfavorable events:Ex. Accident, layoffQuestion 6What are the four core controversies/issues in development?1. Nature vs. nurture: the degree to which genetic or hereditary influences (nature) and experiential/environmental influences (nurture) determine the kind of person you becomeOld= nature VS nurtureNew= nature AND nurtureNature and nurture are mutually interactive influencesPredispositions:Ex. athletic genes (nature)  not given atmosphere to develop into an athlete to express those genes (nurture)Epigenetics2. Stability-change: concerns the degree to which people remain the same over timeStability= essential to self and others to recognize that one is the same individual as time progressesChange=characteristics not set in stonePersonality5 factor modelNeuroticismOpennessAgreeableConscientiousnessExtraversionPersonality becomes more stable as age increases3. Continuity-discontinuity: whether a particular development phenomenon represents a smooth progression over time (continuity), or involves a series of abrupt shifts (discontinuity)Continuity approaches: focus on amount of a characteristic a person hasEx. as people grow older, their speed with which they can respond slowsDiscontinuity approaches: focus on kind of characteristic a person hasEx. how people approach problems, undergoes fundamental shifts from young adulthood through middle agePlasticity: the belief that capacity is not fixed, but can be learned or improved with practice4. Universal vs. Context specific: concerns whether there is just one path of development or severalDifferences in development are simply variations on a fundamental developmental processApplies to all vs. applies to someDevelopment is a product of interactions with environmentDifferent environments have unique procedures to shape developmentQuestion 7What is the main difference between structured observation and naturalistic studies?Structured observation: researcher creates a setting that is likely to elicit the behavior of interest of researcherUseful to study behaviors that are difficult to observe naturallyEx. staging an emergency to watch how people reactNaturalistic observation: observing people in their natural setting, no manipulationEx. observing people in a grocery story while they shopQuestion 1What is the difference between reliability and validity? Give an example of each.Reliability: the extent to which a measure provides a consistent index of behavior or topic of interestEx. a measure of memory is reliable if it gives you a consistent estimate of performance each time you administer itEx. Ruler is a reliable measure of length but not a valid measure of memoryValidity: extent to which a measure is measuring what a researcher thinks its measuringEx. a measure of memory is valid when only if can be shown to actually measure memoryExternalCan we apply the results to other groups outside this study?InternalBalance of internal/external validity important in clinical settingsQuestion 2What is the difference between cross-sectional vs longitudinal designs?Longitudinal: same individuals are observed, tested repeatedly at different points in their livesPros:Age changes are identified due to use of same participants throughout the whole studyNo cohort confoundDifferences caused by experiences/circumstances unique to the generation to which one belongsEx. the great depression, WWII, 9/11Cons:ExpensiveSlowPractice effect:Exposure to a task makes you better at it over timeAttrition- Loss of participantsOften very highExternal validity problemsMicro-genic designs (Type of longitudinal design)Participants tested repeatedly over a span of days/weeksAimed at observing change directly as it occursEx. testing a 12 month old baby every week until 18 monthsUsed for hypotheses about a critical periodUsed for tracking changes as a result of an interventionCross-sectional: testing different people at different ages at the same timePros:QuickCost-effectiveCons:Nothing learned about continuity of developmentData taken at one point, not continuedCohort effectsDifferences in age groups (cohorts) may result as easily from environmental events as developmental processesSequential design: represents different combinations of cross-sectional or longitudinal studiesCross-sequential:2 or more cross-sectional studies conducted at 2 or more times of measurementSame age rangesDifferent participants in each wave of testingLongitudinal sequential:2 or more longitudinal designs that represent 2 or more cohortsBegins with same age rangeFollows