PSY-P 101 1st EditionExam # 1 Study GuideChapter 1:- Theoryo Helps us understand, organize, explain, and predict behaviors and/or eventso A good theory… Organizes a range of self-reports and observations Implies predictions that anyone can use to check the theory or to derive practical applications- Hypothesiso Testable prediction consistent with our theory Testable: hypothesis stated in a way that we can make observations tofind out if its true- Random sampleo Only question people selected randomly from populationo Example of a problem that occurred when a random sample wasn’t taken: Truman vs. Deweyo Every individual in the population has an equal chance of being in the sampleo Random: selection of participants driven only by chance, not by any characteristics- Random assignmento By random assignment of participants, the experimenter aims to control relevant factorso Assigning participants to experimental and control groups by chance- Types of correlationso Positive and negative correlations- Case studyo Observing and gathering information to compile in depth study of one individualo Benefit: source of ideas about human nature in generalo Danger: overgeneralization from one example of atypical example- Experimental & control groupso Experiment: a research method used to manipulate one or more factorso Control group: a group that is same in every way except the one variable we are changing- Independento Experimental factor that is manipulated- Dependento Thing that might change in response to manipulation- Confounding variableso Factors that might influence our results other than the independent variable Might (often unintentionally) influence results- Meano Average- Mediano Middle score of distribution- Modeo Most frequently occurring score in a distribution- Standard deviationo Measure of how scores vary among the mean- Skewed & normal curveso Normal distribution: bell-curveo Skewed: right or left skewed- Wording effectso Results from survey change due to word selectiono Ex. You can see it in advertising- Correlationo Measure of how closely 2 factors vary togethero Correlation coefficient: number representing the strength and direction of correlationo The strength of the correlation ranges from -1 to 1o Correlation does not cause causation; you can find out causation through an experiment- Single blind o Control group is blind to whether they are getting real or fake treatment- Double blindo Neither participants nor research staff knows which participants are in experimental or control groups- Placebo effecto Subjects change behavior because they expect change due to intervention People respond if they believeo Reducing placebo effect Control groups given placebo: inactive substance or other fake treatment in place of experimental treatment- Scientific attitude (curiosity, skepticism, humility)o Curiosity: always asking new questions; generates questionso Skepticism: not accepting a fact as true without challenging it; generates questionso Humility: seeking the truth rather than trying to be right; a scientific need to be able to accept being wrong- Regression to the meano The idea that if the variable is extreme towards the first measurement, then it will be closer to the average for the second measurement- Overconfidence errorso Error #1: performance We are too certain in our judgment Ex. “I am just going to go on Facebook for a few minutes” – but in reality you end up being on Facebook for much longero Error #2: accuracy Overestimate accuracy of our knowledge People more certain than accurateo Illusion of validity: we are dazzled by our own brilliance and hate to be wrong- Hindsight biaso Human thinking can be easily influenced, biased, subjective, and often inaccurateo “I knew it all along”o Post-predictiono After you see the results of research, you often say that it was obviousChapter 2:- Neuronso The nerve cello Building block of the nervous systemo The “atom” of the mind- Dendriteso A neurons bushy, ranching extensions that receive messages and conduct impulses towards the cell body - Myelin sheatho A fatty tissue layer segmentally encasing the axons of some neurons’ enables vastly greater transmission speed as neural impulses help from one nod to the next If it degenerates, then multiple sclerosis results, leading to a loss in muscle control- Synaptic gapo Gap between sending and receiving neuronso The action potential travels to the axon terminal and activates the neurotransmitterso Also called the synapse or synaptic junction- Terminal brancheso Branches of the axono Used to transfer neurotransmitters to the next cell body o Order: dendrites, axon, terminal branches of axon - Neurotransmitterso Chemicals used to send a signal across the synaptic gap- Reuptakeo Neurotransmitters are taken back up into the sending neuron to be reused- Neural networko Activated when needed for action- Sympathetic & parasympathetic nervous systemso Sympathetic: arousing- fight or flight Ex. Can increase your heart beat, increases blood pressureo Parasympathetic: calm- rest and digest Ex. Can decrease your heart beat, decreases blood pressure- Endorphinso Natural, opiate-like neurotransmitters linked to pain control and pleasureo Morphine withino The neurotransmitters (endorphins) explain painkilling effect (athletes stay in the game) and runners high- Endogenouso Originating within bodyo Naturally produced - neurotransmitters- Exogenouso Originating outside the bodyo Artificially produced drugs- Amygdalao Linked to aggression and feal- Sensory neuronso Carry messages in from sensory receptors to brain and spinal cord for processing- Motor neuronso Carry instructions out from the brain and spinal cord to muscles and glands- Interneuronso Neurons in brain and spinal cord that process information between sensory input and motor output- Neuroplasticityo The brain is flexibleo Brain forms new connections, reassigns existing networkso Brain doesn’t repair damaged neurons, but can restore functions by rewiring- Neurogenesiso Formation of new neurons in braino Brain often attempts self-repair by reorganizing existing tissue, it sometimes attempts to mend itself by producing new brain cellso Stem cells: undifferentiated cells capable of developing other kinds of cells- Left-braino Include thoughts on logic, details such as “trees,” language (words and definitions), linear and literal thought, calculations, pieces and detailso