ENVS 101 1st Edition Lecture 2 Outline of Last Lecture • Course Introduction and Overview/Defining and Understanding Earth System Science• Concepts and definitions for System, Model, Flux, Reservoirs, Residence Time, Sequestration• Introduction to the four major Reservoirs of the Earth and their interactions• Understanding of the Earth as a closed systemOutline of Current Lecture • Exploration of the Earth’s four major Reservoirs and what they are comprised of, as well as a fifth focus: The Anthroposhpere• Definitions for: Atmosphere, Biosphere, Lithosphere, Hydrosphere, Anthroposphere, Cryosphere, Negative/Positive Feedback, Cycle, Scientific Method, Potential Energy, Kinetic Energy, Radiation, Conduction, Convection, and the Equation for Photosynthesis• Introduction to the concept of Energy and the Fundamental Laws of Thermodynamics: Conservation and Transformation, Efficiency and Entropy, Absolute Zero• Introduction to the modes of heat transfer: Conduction, Convection, and RadiationCurrent LectureAmong the four major reservoirs of the Earth, there is a constant flow of both energy and matter in their interactions with each other. The four natural systems that are involved are the Geosphere, Hydrosphere, Atmosphere, and the Biosphere. Our fifth focus will be on the Anthroposphere, which helps in the understanding of what resources are used in built and technological environments, and the impact humans have on the Earth system.• The Geosphere: Is the solid Earth, mainly composed of rock, the firm, coherent mass of solid matter that covers Earth, as well as regolith, the layer of loose, uncemented rock particles that cover the solid Earth. The surface of the geosphere.• The Hydrosphere: Is comprised of the totality of Earth’s water, which includes oceans, lakes, streams, underground water, as well as the snow and ice. The perennially frozen parts (frozen year-round) of this systemare collectively known as the cryosphere. The hydrosphere and the atmosphere interact very closely in processes to purify, store, and continually redistribute water. • The Atmosphere: is the mixture of gases that surrounds the Earth. The gases that are main components of this system includes: nitrogen, oxygen, argon, carbon dioxide, and water vapor. Although the atmosphere is a relatively thin layer of these gases, it serves as a reservoirof carbon dioxide and oxygen (essentials for the Biosphere) and protects all life from damaging solar radiation.• The Biosphere: Includes all of Earth’s organisms, as well as organic matter that has not yet decomposed. Another unique process that allows life to thrive on Earth is that of photosynthesis, which is represented by the following equation:CO2 + Energy => O2 and Organic Matter• The Anthroposphere: The “human sphere” part of a natural system that has been modified by humans. It comprises humans, their interests, and their overall impact on the natural Earth system.• Because energy flows freely into/out of systems, all systems respond to inputs (and have a resulting output). Through this process, a special response known as feedback, where the output of a system is also an input, and leads to changes in the state of a system. Feedback can occur in one of two different ways: Positive or Negative Feedback.• Positive Feedback: An increase in output leads to a further increase in theoutput. This particular response is also referred to as a “vicious cycle” or “destabilizing” because rather than bringing a system to equilibrium (balance), it will amplify the original disturbance. • Negative Feedback: The system’s response is in the opposite direction of initial input. This response is referred to as a “self-limiting” or “self-regulating” response. Negative feedback is generally desirable because it responds to a disturbance by bringing the system back to a point of equilibrium.In these different ways, the constant movement of material from one reservoir toanother, and the repetition of this movement of material is known as a cycle.• Cycle: The constant movement of energy from one reservoir to another.Earth system science, similar to any other form of science is a means of gaining both knowledge and understanding of natural phenomena. Advances within science occur by applying the scientific method, a research strategy developed over trial and error over the years.• Scientific Method: Based on observations and the systematic collection ofevidence that can be seen and tested by anyone with resources and is done through the following steps: • Investigations and/or experiments• Form a hypothesis to explain observations• Test hypothesis (If tests do not support the hypothesis, discardthe hypothesis and make new observations to begin again at the first step• Multiple tests by many scientists support hypothesis• Hypothesis becomes a theory• Theory: A generalization about nature. Often, theory is confused with the word hypothesis: Which is a plausible, yet unproven explanation for the way things happen.Although uncertainty has a well-established role in the world of formulating and testing new ideas in science, it does not necessarily mean that there is a lack of knowledge or understanding among scientists. The reality widely accepted among scientists is that nothing is absolutely certain in the natural world.It is important to know that everything that occurs in the Earth system is driven by energy, and that without energy, there would actually be no Earth system, or any opportunity for life to survive and thrive on Earth. • Energy: The capacity to do work, to move matter, to make things happen. Energy itself exists in a variety of different forms, including:• Potential Energy: Energy stored in a system, which can take the form of chemical, gravitational, nuclear, or elastic energy.• Kinetic Energy: Energy that is expressed in movement, (such as sound waves or wind) which can take the form of electrical energy, sound, motion of objects, and thermal energy (heat).• Radiation: Energy which can take the form of radiant energy (visible light),ultra-violet, infared, or x-rays.The Fundamental Laws of Thermodynamics govern the way energy behaves as it moves through the Earth System, and are as follows:• First Law: Conservation and Transformation• The energy involved in any physical or chemical change is neither created nor destroyed, but changes from one form into another.• Second Law: