Study Questions for Big Quiz 3 (from Disease through the end of Protists (finished Thursday, Nov. 8))Bacteria and Disease1. How is pathogenic different from virulent?(Both are Genetically encoded) Pathogenic means the genetic ability to cause host harm and Virulence is the degree of the harm being caused. Virulence factors make you able to evade immune system.2. What determines virulence? Is it genetic?A Chance mutation and it is genetically based. Caused by toxins, and types of pathogens.3. What types of organisms are pathogenic, and how common is the ability to cause disease?The organisms that are pathogenic are SOME bacteria but NONE are Archea.4. Virulence arose independently in several lineages over time – what does this mean?It’s convergent evolution of resistance. Can evolve to become more virulent over time. It’s genetically encoded over time and can arise by chance, independent of ancestry. Good trait to have.5. Why do I sometimes use the words disease-causing and parasites interchangeably?Disease causing is feeding off of us making it a parasite. Parasites cause disease because they hurt you when they feed on your body.6. List the typical entry locations for bacteria on your body, and list the steps of infection.Any opening on body. (Mouth, eyes, nose, ect) The steps of infection are: 1.) Bind to cells at specific locations (lungs, throat, intestines). 2.) They reproduce. 3.) Produce or release toxins (Endo or exotoxins). 4.) Possibly enter cells.7. How are exo and endotoxins different (including how they cause sickness)?Exotoxins are cells that emit toxic chemical (tissue damage). Endotoxins are cells that die and lipids in membrane and cause systemic reaction (inflammation, sepsis). Endotoxins spread out through your body, and doesn’t do damage until it dies. Also pieces of cell membrane. 8. What are the three levels of protection that the immune system provides? What level results in the production of antibodies? 1.) They keep bacteria out. 2.) Non-Specific Killing. 3.) Immunity. Antibodies deal with previous problems.9. How does a vaccine work?Vaccines give you antibodies by introducing a virus and builds up immunization. Mimics and immune response.10. What does Paul Ewald think we can do to disease-causing organisms?We can help these things (population) evolve and be LESS devastating (virulent) to us.11. What is the purpose of an antibiotic? (Don’t say it gives you immunity…)Inhibits bacteria growth and survival.12. What structures on a bacterium are targets of antibiotics? How do they target only bacteria and not your own cells?Target DNA polymerase (copies DNA), Ribosome’s (proteins), and cell wall. REMEMBER THAT HUMANS DO NOT HAVE CELL WALLS13. Why do certain antibiotics not work as well on gram – bacteria?Gram-bacteria have an extra membrane on their cell wall. (Harder to penetrate)14. What is resistance? (Make sure you don’t get this confused with immunity… immunity is what YOU get, resistance is what the bacteria gets)The ability to survive antibiotics15. How is the development of resistance an example of natural selection? You may want to review natural selection from past notes so you could answer a question about this. Remember the importance of being precise about the words you use.NS- Heritable variable trait (resistance) in bacteria. Antibiotic- selection pressure. Genetic trait that codes for the ability that codes for the ability to spit the antibiotic back out and not let it into the bacteria. By chance because of their genetics some members of the population are more likely to survive and produce that application. Rproduces a second generation that are more resistant to the antibiotics, shifting the population (directional pressure).16. What factors make bacteria prone to resistance at a fast rate?They reproduce at a pretty fast rate.17. Why is the study of microbial communities so important to human health issues in the future?It helps us determine which bacteria can be helpful or harmful to humans, how they enter the body, and how to prevent infections from bacteria.Evolution of Eukaryotes1. Know the characteristics of life on the planet BEFORE eukaryotes evolved, and then the characteristics of the organisms that were the first eukaryotes (by my count, there should be seven things on this early eukaryote list).They were just prokaryotes meaning they were single celled. No cellular compartmentalization (No organelles). Metabolically diverse, but limited feeding abilities. NO NUCLEUS. Had a cell wall.7 characteristics: 1.) Have a nucleus. 2.) Have organelles, all have mitochondria and some have choroplasts (photosynthesizors. 3.) more complex skelecton. 4.) Mitosis, not binary fission. 5.) Do not have a cell wall. 7.) Phagosytosis.2. What are two organelles found in eukaryotes, and where did they come from?Mitochondria and chloroplasts. Mitochondria are in everything, choroplasts are only in photosynthetic things. One absorbed the other by chance. Cyanobacteria 3. Why did the loss of the cell wall and evolution of phagocytosis probably evolve close together?Phagocytosis = ingestion, requires you to ooze and envelop something. Cell wall isn’t flexible enough to ooze and ingest something. Cannot have a cell wall if you try to engulf something.4. What is one hypothesis about how the nucleus evolved?The enfolding of the plasma membrane5. What is one of the great advancements of having a nucleus?The regulation of gene expression. It separated translation and transcription.6. What are the four steps to the process of endosymbiosis? (Note that ingestion is one of the steps, but that ingestion alone is NOT enough to complete endosymbiosis)1.) One bacterium ingests a proteobacteria. 2.) Form symbiosis. 3.) Pass endosymbiont to offspring 4.) Transfer genes7. What are the six lines of evidence that support the theory of endosymbiosis?1.) Size of organelles similar to prokaryotes. (Mitochondria same size as proteobacteria). 2.) The mitochondria have two membranes because of ingestion. 3.) Have own DNA-Circular! 4.) Divide by binary fission. 5.) Have own ribosomes and make own proteins. 6.) DNA of mitochondria mostclosely related to proteobacteria.8. Given how often it has occurred, how difficult (in evolutionary terms) is endosymbiosis?Endosymbiosis is not difficult at all, but not too common.Protists all protists are eukaryotes but not all eukaryotes are protists!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!1. How is a protist defined?A protist