EXSC 224: Final Essays
65 Cards in this Set
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The longest portion of the small intestine is the _______.
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ileum
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______ is the principal enzyme for breaking down carbohydrates.
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Amylase
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______ cells of the stomach secrete HCl.
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Parietal
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The chief bile pigment is _________.
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bilirubin
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________ is another word for vomiting.
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Emesis
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portal triad contains
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bile duct, hepatic artery proper, hepatic portal vein
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________ cells are found in the sinusoids of the liver, and they remove debris from the blood as it flows past.
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Kupffer
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The ____________ peritoneum covers the external surfaces of most digestive organs.
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Visceral
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The _______ ligament anchors a tooth in the alveolus of the jaw.
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periodontal
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The _______ phase of gastric secretions occurs before food enters the stomach.
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cephalic (or reflex)
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The round ligament is a remnant of the fetal __________.
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umbilical vein
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Compare and contrast the structure and function of a premolar and a molar.
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Premolars have a broad crown with rounded cusps but have only one root. Molars also have broad crowns withrounded cusps but are larger than premolars. Molars have at least two roots.
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What are chylomicrons?
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Chylomicrons are tiny fatty droplets composed of triglycerides, small amounts of phospholipids, cholesterol, free fattyacids, and some protein.
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What is heartburn and what causes it?
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Heartburn is the discomfort felt in the chest area when the acidic gastric juices get regurgitated into the esophagus.This may happen when someone has eaten or drunk too much, or it can be caused by extreme obesity or thediscomfort of pregnancy. It is sometimes due to obstructions or stru…
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Name two regions of the digestive tract where mechanical food breakdown processes are very important. Name two organs that are primarily food conduits. Name the organ whereprotein digestion is begun. Name the organ where fat digestion begins.
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Mechanical food processes are very important in the mouth (mastication) and stomach (contractions causing mixing offood into chyme). The esophagus and pharynx are primarily food conduits. Protein digestion begins in the stomach.Fat digestion begins in the small intestine.
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Define constipation and diarrhea. Note possible causes of each.
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Watery stools are called diarrhea. Constipation is a condition in which too much water has been absorbed and the stoolbecomes hard and difficult to pass. Any condition (such as irritation of the colon by bacteria) that rushes food residuethrough the large intestine before that organ has h…
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Assume you have been chewing a piece of bread for 5 or 6 minutes. How would you expect its taste to change during this time? Why?
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The bread will begin to taste sweet as some of the starch is broken down into sugar due to the chemical digestion of carbohydrates by salivary amylase.
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Name the three pairs of major salivary glands. Describe their relative locations and their microscopic differences.
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The parotid glands lie anterior to the ears between the masseter muscle and the skin. They open into the vestibule nextto the second molars of the upper jaw. The submandibular glands lie along the medial aspect of the mandibular body.Their ducts run beneath the mucosa of the oral cavity f…
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Why is it necessary for the stomach contents to be so acidic? How does the stomach protect itself from digestion?
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HCl is necessary for the activation and optimal activity of pepsin, and it kills many of the bacteria ingested with food.Mucous cells in the lining of the stomach secrete an alkaline mucus that clings to the stomach wall and helps to shieldit from the acid. The epithelial cells of the muc…
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Identify three ways the small intestine is modified to increase the surface area for digestion and absorption.
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The plicae circulares, villi, and microvilli are modifications of the small intestine for digestion and absorption. Theplicae circulares are circular folds of the mucosa and submucosa. They force chyme to move spirally through thelumen. The villi are fingerlike projections of the mucosa. …
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How is digestive activity provoked after eating? What activates the secretion of digestive juices into the lumen or hormones into the blood?
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Sensors (mechanoreceptors and chemoreceptors) located in the walls of the gastrointestinal tract respond to stretchingby the introduction of food into the lumen. Also, the sensors are able to respond to changes in solute concentration andpH as well as the presence of substrates and end pr…
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How is salivation controlled?
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When we ingest food, chemoreceptors and pressoreceptors in the mouth send signals to the salivatory nuclei in thebrain stem. The parasympathetic nervous system activity increases and motor fibers trigger the increase in serous,enzyme-rich saliva.
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What is bile and where is it produced? What is its digestive function? Where is it stored and concentrated?
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Bile is an alkaline solution containing bile salts, bile pigments, cholesterol, neutral fats, phospholipids, and a variety ofelectrolytes. It is produced in the liver. Its digestive function is to emulsify fats. It is stored and concentrated in the gall bladder.
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Richard is told by his family doctor that he is bleeding from either the colon or the rectum, and he should see aspecialist as soon as possible. Which specialist should he go see?
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Richard should see a proctologist.
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Mrs. Wong goes to the emergency room with the following symptoms: severe pain in the umbilical region, lossof appetite, nausea, and vomiting. While she was waiting to see a doctor, the pain moved to the lower rightabdominal quadrant. What is the diagnosis and treatment?
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The diagnosis is appendicitis. The accepted treatment is immediate surgical removal of the appendix.
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Jose is brought to the emergency room complaining of a burning sensation in his chest, increased salivation, anddifficulty in swallowing. He is having difficulty breathing and feels the presence of a "lump in his throat." Thediagnosis is gastroesophageal reflux disease. Explain.
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Gastroesophageal reflux disease is a disorder in which the rate of reflux is greater than in normal individuals andcauses clinical symptoms and/or histological changes. Reflux and regurgitation may result in aspiration of gastriccontents into the air passages, causing respiratory distress…
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Sami has been hospitalized with acute gastritis. Her symptoms were epigastric pressure (just above thestomach), headache, nausea, and vomiting. She revealed that she had been suffering back pain and drank fourshots of gin and took three aspirin to "kill the pain." What led the physician t…
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Gastritis is an inflammation of the mucosal lining of the stomach. The probable reason for the abrupt onset ofsymptoms is due to rapid and heavy ingestion of alcohol and aspirin. Acute gastritis is often due to chemical irritants,particularly alcohol or salicylate.
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A woman is brought to an emergency room complaining of severe pain in her left iliac region. She claimsprevious episodes and says that the condition is worse when she is constipated, and is relieved by defecation. Alarge, tender mass is palpated in the left iliac fossa and a barium study …
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Diverticula are small herniations of the mucosa through the colon walls, a condition called diverticulosis. They arebelieved to form when the diet lacks bulk and the volume of residue in the colon is small. The colon narrowscontractions of its circular muscles and they become more powerfu…
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A patient is 67 years old and has had a hiatal hernia for three years. In the last year, she has complained ofworsening heartburn, especially at night. What are the characteristic symptoms of a hiatal hernia and which ofthese symptoms did the patient have?
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Heartburn and regurgitation from gastroesophageal reflux are the most common clinical manifestations of hiatalhernia. This patient complained of heartburn.
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A patient was admitted to the hospital because of severe epigastric pain. He has noted that his stools weredarker than the usual brown color. He appears pale and very anxious. The history reports that he drinks 2-3beers per day and smokes 2 packs of cigarettes a day. Based on the assessme…
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The patient most likely has a gastric ulcer. The most distressing symptom of a gastric ulcer is gnawing epigastric painthat seems to bore through to the back. The danger posed by ulcers is perforation of the stomach wall followed byperitonitis and massive hemorrhage. Because the patient's…
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A patient has esophageal cancer and must have a feeding tube inserted. The nurse tells the patient that the tubewill be inserted surgically into the duodenum. The patient's wife asks why the tube will not be inserted into thestomach. What should the nurse say?
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The duodenum is part of the small intestine, which is the body's major digestive organ. Digestion is completed andabsorption is best in the small intestine. There is also less risk for vomiting, which may cause complications.
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A 45-year-old patient was admitted to the hospital with a diagnosis of cirrhosis of the liver. He is thin andmalnourished. His abdomen is very large due to an accumulation of fluid in the abdominal cavity. His lowerextremities are very swollen. Explain why these changes have occurred.
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Cirrhosis is a diffuse and progressive chronic inflammation of the liver that typically results from chronic alcoholismor severe chronic hepatitis. Cirrhosis is characterized by extensive degeneration and destruction of the liverparenchymal cells. Edema and ascites (accumulation of fluid …
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A 45-year-old patient was admitted to the hospital with a diagnosis of cirrhosis of the liver. The nurse isobserving him closely for the possibility of gastrointestinal bleeding. Why is this considered a possiblecomplication?
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As scar tissue eventually shrinks, it obstructs blood flow throughout the hepatic portal system, causing portalhypertension. Some veins of the portal system anastomose with veins that drain into the venae cavae. However, theseconnecting veins are small and tend to burst when forced to car…
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________ are grafts taken from another animal species.
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Xenografts
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Pure antibody preparations specific for a single antigenic determinant are called ________ antibodies.
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monoclonal
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________ is the most common type of immediate hypersensitivity.
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Allergy
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________ cells can lyse and kill cancer cells and virus-infected body cells before the immune system is activated.
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Natural killer
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________ is a dangerous condition where the cytokines are released unchecked, making the capillaries very leaky and thus depleting blood fluids.
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Septic shock or Sepsis
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Harmful or disease-causing microorganisms are called ________.
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pathogens
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________ refers to a group of at least 20 plasma proteins that normally circulate in an
inactive state and are a major mechanism for destroying foreign substances in the body.
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Complement
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The antibody that becomes bound to mast cells and basophils and causes the cells to release histamine and other chemicals is ________.
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IgE
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A(n) ________ is a cell hybrid formed from the fusion of tumor cells and B lymphocytes
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hybridoma
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________ cells are the only T lymphocytes that can directly attack and kill other cells.
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Cytotoxic T
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________ is an autoimmune disease that severely impairs renal function.
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Glomerulonephritis
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List and briefly discuss innate body defenses to disease.
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Innate body defenses to disease include surface membrane barriers, such as the skin and mucous membranes, as thefirst line of defense. Not only do the skin and mucous membranes act as a physical barrier to microorganisms, but theyalso secrete chemicals such as saliva, sebum, mucus, and HC…
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What are monoclonal antibodies? How are they produced, and what are some of their clinical uses?
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Monoclonal antibodies are pure antibody preparations that exhibit specificity for a single antigenic determinant. Theyare produced from the progeny of a single B cell hybridoma "clone," prepared by injecting a specific antigen into a labanimal and then harvesting sensitized B cells from i…
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What is the antigen challenge, and where does it usually take place?
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The antigen challenge is the first encounter between an immunocompetent lymphocyte and an invading antigen. Itusually takes place in the spleen or a lymph node, but may happen in any lymphoid tissue.
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Why are regulatory T cells important to the immune process?
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They are vital in the final stopping of an immune response after the antigen is inactivated. They may also help preventautoimmune reactions.
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What is the most likely type of hypersensitivity associated with an agonizingly itchy case of poison ivy, appearance of hives after eating shellfish, or a positive TB test?
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The hypersensitivity associated with poison ivy is delayed hypersensitivity allergic contact dermatitis. Thehypersensitivity associated with hives is a local anaphylactic reaction. The hypersensitivity associated with a positiveTB test is delayed hypersensitivity.
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Children born without a thymus must be kept in a germ-free environment if they are to survive. Explain why this is necessary.
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If the thymus fails to develop, the T cells will not mature and become immunocompetent. If T cell function isdisrupted, there is no resistance to disease.
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What are the signs of inflammation, and how does inflammation serve as a protective function?
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The four signs of inflammation are swelling, redness, heat, and pain. The signs are caused by local vasodilation andincreased capillary permeability. This is of benefit because the process helps to dilute harmful substances that may bepresent; brings in large quantities of oxygen, nutrien…
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Name four autoimmune diseases.
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Multiple sclerosis, myasthenia gravis, Graves' disease, juvenile (type I) diabetes, systemic lupus erythematosus,glomerulonephritis, rheumatoid arthritis.
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What are two general mechanisms by which autoimmune diseases could arise?
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1) Appearance of new self-proteins in the circulation that have not previously been exposed to the immune system. 2)An immune response to foreign antigens resembling self-antigens.
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Elderly people tend to develop cancer more frequently than younger people. Give an explanation for this observation that relates to immune function.
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As one ages, the efficiency of the immune system begins to decline. This may allow cancer to become established moreeasily.
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Why do schools require inoculations for childhood diseases such as mumps, measles, and whooping cough? Why are the inoculations of value?
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The inoculations are required to try to prevent epidemics of these microbiological infections. The inoculations are ofgreat benefit in preventing the diseases because the vaccines cause immunity to the pathogens by stimulating both theformation of protective antibodies and the establishme…
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Tom gets a cut on his hand. After several days he notes swelling, pain, heat, and redness. Upon opening the wound to relieve the pressure, the presence of pus is noted. What hashappened to the wound?
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The wound has become infected, probably with bacteria. The initial symptoms indicate acute inflammation. Pusindicates the presence of dead or dying neutrophils, broken-down tissue cells, and living and dead pathogens.
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What are some of the drawbacks of passive humoral immunity?
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The effects are short lived; it does not trigger memory cell production; and your body degrades the antibodies
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A 36-year-old man enters the hospital in an extremely debilitated condition. He has purple-brown skin lesions(a symptom of Kaposi's sarcoma) and a persistent cough. A physical examination reveals swollen lymph nodes,and laboratory tests find a very low lymphocyte count. Information taken …
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He is probably suffering from AIDS. His outlook is poor once the disease has progressed to this advanced stage. Thereis no cure and drug therapy has had limited short-term success.
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A young girl requires a liver transplant due to failure of her liver to function. What is required for her to have agood prognosis and why?
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The ABO and other blood group antigens of the donor and recipient must be determined. Next, donor and recipienttissues are matched as closely as possible. Following surgery she must receive immunosuppressive therapy to keep herbody from rejecting the new liver as foreign tissue.
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A woman comes into the hospital emergency room complaining that she is having problems swallowing andher neck is swelling. She was involved in an automobile accident a couple days ago but only bruised her neck.What could be the problem?
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The woman is suffering from Hashimoto's thyroiditis. The automobile accident injured the thyroid gland and releasedthyroidglobulin into the bloodstream. The immune system has mounted an attack on the thyroid gland.
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Max is bitten by a rattlesnake while on a camping trip. His friends immediately apply ice packs to the bittenarea to slow the spread of the protein-based toxin; they then rush him to an emergency facility. What treatmentwould be given and why?
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Max could be given an immune serum to the rattlesnake venom, thereby conferring passive immunity. The reason forpassive immunization is that the venom could kill the person before active immunity could be established. The passiveimmunity would last until the "borrowed" antibodies naturall…
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A physician orders Tylenol for a temperature greater than 101 degrees F. The patient's temperature is 100.4 F.Explain the rationale for not medicating a fever of 100.4 F.
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A mild or moderate fever is an adaptive response that seems to benefit the body. Bacteria need large amounts of zincand iron to multiply. During fever, the liver and spleen sequester these nutrients, making them less available, whichhelps to reduce the bacterial population.
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Nursing care of a patient with acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS) includes monitoring of Tlymphocyte counts. Explain why.
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The primary defect in patients with AIDS is depletion of helper T cells, and therefore the cell-mediated response. Thisimmunodeficiency makes the patient more susceptible to infection and unusual cancers.
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After receiving penicillin intravenously, a 32-year-old male patient has an anaphylactic reaction. The nurseunderstands that therapeutic management includes what critical items?
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Therapeutic management includes speed in recognition of signs and symptoms of an anaphylactic reaction becausedeath can occur within minutes. Maintaining an open airway is critical, because the bronchioles constrict, making itdifficult to breathe.
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When the white blood cell count is depressed, the classic signs of infection such as redness, heat, and swellingare not manifested. In this case, the nurse should avoid administering aspirin. Explain why.
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Aspirin would disguise a fever that would indicate infection.
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EXSC 224: Test 2