81 Cards in this Set
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AUFBAU Principle
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Electrons are added one at a time to the lowest Electron orbital available until all electrons have been accounted for
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Paullie Exclusion principle
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An orbital can hold a maximum of 2 electrons, must spin in opposite directions, called paired electrons
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Hunds Rule(Bus rule)
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Electrons occupy electron orbitals so that a max number of unpaired electrons result
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Electron orbital diagram
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"1S
2S 2P
3S 3P 3D
4S 4P 4D 4F
5S 5P 5D 5F
6S 6S 6D
7S 7S
8S"
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Electron orbital diagram (order)
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1s,2s,2p,3s,3p,4s,3d,4p5s,4d,5p,6s ect.
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D can hold a max of?
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10
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F can hold a max of?
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14
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Reaction Rates Depend on...
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the concentration of the reactant molecules, the temp at which the reaction occurs, the extent to which the reactant molecules are in contact and the presence of a catalyst
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Catalysts
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Lower the activation energy required-changes the reaction route or mechanism
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catalysts
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a substance that provides an alternate route between the reactants and products-lower activation energy & faster!
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catalysts
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isn't a part of the reaction and is left chemically unchanged-can be reused multiple times
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catalysts
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don't affect equillibrium, but allow equillibrium to be reached quicker
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catalysts
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catalyze the reaction in either direction
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catalyst
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A substance that increases the rate of a chemical reaction without itself undergoing any permanent chemical change
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Reaction Rate
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The speed at which the product is formed or the reactant is used up
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Normalized Rate
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Found by taking the rate of a single product/reactant and dividing by the coeffiecient
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Normalized Rate Example
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2N2O+3O2=4NO2
Rate of reaction=-1/2*N2O/t=-1/3*O2/t=1/4NO2/t
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at equilibrium
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rate in the forward direction =rate in the reverse direction, net rate=0
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Rate Law
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k[A]m*[B]n
A&B are reactants, m&n are reaction orders, m+n=overall reaction order*****
reaction order has nothing to do with the coefficents
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Integrate Rate Laws
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the relationship between time and concentration
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first order reactions
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rate=k[R]
Integrate rate:
ln[R]t/[R]0=-kt
[R]t=[R]0e-kt
Half Life=.693/k
half life remains constant
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second order reactions
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rate=k[R]2
Integrate Rate:
1/[R]t-1/[R]0=kt
Half Life=1/k[R]0
half life doubles successively
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Zero Order Reactions
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Rate=k
Integrate Rate equation
[R]t=[R]0-kt
Half Life=[R]0/2k
Half life halves successively
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First order reactions
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rate = k[R]
[R]t/[R]o = -kt
half life = Kt1/2 = 0.693
each half life decreases by half (1/2 * 1/2 * 1/2)
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Second Order Reaction
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Rate = k[R]2
1/[R]t = kt + 1/[R]0
Each half life is double the previous (20s, 40s, 80s)
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reaction mechanism
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the way in which the reaction occurs ie) what happens first, second etc
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reaction steps
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called elementary steps-each individual step in a reaction
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unimolecular
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only one molecule involved in the step (first order)
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bimolecular
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two molecules involved in an elementary step-second order
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termolecular
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very rare! three molecules involved in an elementary step-third order
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reaction intermediates
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produced in one step, used up in the next and do not appear in the overall chemical equation for the reaction
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rate-determining step
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one step will occur slower than the other, the entire reaction occurs at this rate
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steady state approximation
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concentration of the intermediate remains constant as the reaction proceeds
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activation energy (EA)
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energy required to start the reaction up
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increase in temp
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typically increases the rate of reaction-usually an exponential increase
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Arrhenius Equation
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"k=Ae-(EA/RT)
or lnk=lnA-EA/RT
A=frequency factor
R=8.314
T=Temp (Kelvin)
EA=activation energy"
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Transition State Theory
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the transition state or activated complex is the arrangement of atoms at the point of highest potential energy between the reactants and the products
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homogenous catalyst
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is in the same state/phase as the reactant
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hetergeneous catalyst
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in a different state/phase from the reactants
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enzymes
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catalysts used in biological reactions
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Arrhenius Definitions
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An acid is a substance that increases the concentration of H3O+ when dissolved in H2O. A base increases the concentration of OH-
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Arrhenius Neutralization
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occurs when H3O+ reacts with OH- to get water
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strong acids/bases
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completely ionize, has large Ka/Kb
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weak acids/bases
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remain mostly intact. Ka/Kb is very small
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Bronsted-Lowry Definitions
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An acid is a substance that donates an H+ to the base which recieves it
each reaction has two conjugate pairs
always omit the spectator ions
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Lewis Definitions
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an acid is a substance that accepts an electron pair, base donates it
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acids/bases
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all are lewis acids/bases, some are bronsted lowry, all arrhenius are bronsted lowry
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Acid/Base
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Acid transfers H+ to a base, base accepts
strong acid easily releases the H+
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Ion product for water
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Kw=1*10-14
=Ka*Kb
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pH
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-log[H3O+] one mole of strong acid=one mole of H3O+
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When is it ok to ignore the 'x' in the denominator?
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if the initial concentration of the acid is greater than 100xKa
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calculate the hydrogen ion concentration and the pH of a .10 M solution of acetic acid (CH3CO2H)
Ka=1.8x10-5
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1. Write equation: CH3CO2H+H2O=H3O++CH3CO2-
2. Write Ka equation:
Ka=[products]/[reactants (not including H2O)]=1.8*10-5
3. Set up ICE table
4. Place E concentrations into Ka equation
5. Solve for x
6. x=[H3O+]
7. pH=-log[H3O+]
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Conjugate Partners
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*The stronger the acid, the weaker the conjugate base
*strong acids are stronger than H3O+
*strong bases are stronger than OH-
*If Ka>1, then acid is strong. if <1 is weak
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How to release H+ ion...
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1. depends on chemical structure
2. the bond between the H+ atom and other molecules should be weak
3. the bond should be polarized (H will give up electrons)
4. the fragment after the H+ ion has broken away (conjugate base) should be stable
5. The negative charge should be lower
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strong acids
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"HI
HClO4
HBr
HCl
HClO3
H2SO4
HNO3"
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describe the ways in which the rate of a chemical reaction can be affected
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"*concentrations of reactant molecules
*temperature
*catalyst
*extent to which the reactant molecules are in contact"
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how is rate of a chemical reaction defined? how is the rate at which a reactant is used up related to the rate at which a product is formed?
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"*rate of reaction is the rate at which the concentration of reactant or product changes per time
*the relative rates depend on the coefficents"
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intermediate
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"A + B → C + D
The reaction includes these elementary steps:
A + B → X*
X* → C + D
The chemical species X* is an intermediate."
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given a reaction and a rate of consumption (i.e. -0.37 mol/Ls) find corresponding rates of consumption/production.
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multiply rate by moles of what you're trying to find. switch sign if on opposite side of equilibrium sign.
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Decay to 10% of original value given half-life.
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"t1/2=(.693/K)
solve for K
use ln[R]t/[R]o = -kt
allow it to be ln(percentage in fraction) i.e. 10/100"
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relationship of Kp and Kc
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Kp=Kc (RT)^dn
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K >,<,= 1 and its relation to acids.
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"K>1 means more products than reactants, so stronger acid is on reactant side.
K<1 product side.
K=1 both acids same strength."
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oxidation numbers
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"lone element: 0
Fluorine: -1
Oxygen: -2 (except w/ F)
Cl, Br, I: -1 (except w/ F & O)
Hydrogen: +1 nonmetals, -1 metals
Group I: +1
Group II: +2
monatomic ion: charge on ion
polyatomic ion: equals out to charge on ion"
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Bronsted-Lowry Acid
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A substance that donates a hydrogen ion
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Bronsted-Lowry Base
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A substance that accepts a hydrogen ion
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Buffer solution
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solutions that contain a weak electrolyte and its conjugate partner
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Find Delta G given reaction and Eo
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use formula G = -nFEo
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Balance Redox Reaction
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"split reaction in two (conjugate base/acid)
add water and electrons based off oxidation
put equation back together
if basic add OH-"
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increasing entropy
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melting, isothermal expansion (ideal gas), sublimation, boiling, liquid --> aqueous
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Given amps, molarity, and time; how much of a metal is deposited on cathode.
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amps x time(s) = A s = C. C x (1 mol e- / 96485) x (moles of metal/ 2 mol e- ) x (molar mass)
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ligand
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An ion or molecule attached to a metal atom by coordinate bonding
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isomer
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complexes with different arrangements of ligands
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stereoisomerism
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"involves structures in which the metal ion is surrounded by the same set of ligands but arranged in different ways
geometrical and optical "
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structural isomerism
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involves structures in which the metal ion is surrounded by a different set of donor atoms and/or ligands
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geometrical isomerism
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the possibility of arranging the same set of ligands around the metal ion in a different way. (cis-trans isomerism)
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Optical isomerism
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nonsuperimposable mirror images of isomers. (mirror images that aren't identical)
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on the same side
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on the same side
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on the other side or "across"
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on the other side or "across"
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enantiomers
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each individual nonsuperimposable isomer in optical isomerism.
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adiabatic
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without the exchange of heat.
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Constant volume
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no work
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Study Guide