ADPR 3850: Test 2
152 Cards in this Set
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Four Essential Steps of Effective PR
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Research, Planning, Communication, and Measurement
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What is Research?
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The systematic investigation of a problem, involving or gathering evidence, to make inferences
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Research: Systematic Investigation
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Predefined procedures and methods such as surgery questionnaires, guidelines for focus groups, codebook for content analysis, etc.
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Systematic Investigation: Intersubjectivity
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It must be possible for other researchers to replicate our study and come to the same results
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Research Problem: Empirical
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Should be able to be answered based on observable evidence
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Types of Research Problems
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Exploratory, descriptive, and casual
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Types of Research Problems: Exploratory
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Focus groups to understand voter's reaction to new policies
Pretesting brand product names in different cultures
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Types of Research Problems Descriptive
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Audience Research, Research of Market Shares
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Types of Research Problems: Casual
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Examining the influence of one variable on another
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Gathering Evidence: Social Regularities
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Predictions about specific publics, larger groups of voters, or consumers.
NOT predictions about individuals
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Research: Chance of Error
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Findings hold within some margin of error, there's never absolute certainty
Distinguish between probabilistic vs. deterministic predictions
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Based on Samples
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Most market and PR research is still based on this... The goal is to make inferences to
a larger population
other time periods
other locations/societies
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Academic Research
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"basic" research, usually funded through universities or foundations in order to answer broader theoretical questions, conducted by academics, data remain property of the researcher but usually can be used by other researchers
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Applied Research
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Often called "industry research", funded by corporate or political sponsors, to answer a specific, applied question
Conducted by academics, research departments of larger firms, maker research or consulting companies
Data remains property of the client
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Primary Research
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Information gathered by the researchers through person-to-person interaction. Can be gathered through meetings, one-on-one interviews, focus groups, surveys, etc.
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Secondary Research
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Information gathered through available literature, publications, broadcast media, and other non-human sources. Generally easier to gather than primary
Examples Nielson data, Pew data
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Quantitative Methods
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numerical tabulations and statistical comparisons made possible by systematic surveys, experiments, observations, or analysis of records. Data are used to test hypotheses and identify the strength of patterns observed using qualitative methods
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Qualitative Methods
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descriptions of cultural situations obtained from interviewing, participant observation, and collection of oral and textual materials
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Quantitative Research Examples
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Surveys (telephone, mailed, online)
Sampling: random, area probability, snowball, convince
Complexity:length of questionnaire
Survey Mode: in person, telephone, email, web
Analysis
Answers question about cause-effect relationship (i.e. manipulate variables and measure outcomes)
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Logic of Experiments
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Simple Pretest-Posttest Control Group Design (with Random Assignment)
One of many different experimental designs
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The Use of Qualitative Research
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When you're in new territory and little is known
When customer perceptions or attitudes may be hidden from easy view
When the product category may represent unspoken meaning to buyers
To generate ideas for products, advertising, or brand positioning
To feed a formal idea generation p…
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Qualitative Research Examples
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provides insight into how and why people think and behave the way they do
Popular Methods are interviews, participant- observation, and focus groups
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Interviews: Structured
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Uses an interview schedule and adheres fairly strictly to it
Similar to a survey in that the informants don’t really guide the interviewer
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Interview: Semi-Structured
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Begins with a key set of questions for interview
But, allows informants to wander into interesting territory
Later informants may be asked about these issues
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Interview: Unstructured
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Freedom, one general opening statement and then a free flow
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Focus Groups
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Given high costs of interviews, researchers increasingly turning to focus groups
Consist of 5-10 people who are chosen based on their relevance to the study
It is a guided discussion designed to explore a topic of special interest to the client/ researcher
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Participant Observation
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Methodology is simple: observe, record, and report
With the embedded method, you may choose not to record when you are interacting with others, but you remember and record your observations
Your data are your observations
Your analysis involves comparing your observations to your earli…
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Cross Sectional Research
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Based on a sample drawn at a single point in time
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Longitudinal research
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Bassed on one or multiple samples, with measurements taken at multiple points in time
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Types of Longitudinal Research
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Trend studies
Panel Studies
Cohort Studies
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Probability Sampling
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Element of the population has a non-zero, known, and equal chance of being selected into the sample
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Non-Probability Sampling
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One of the assumptions of probability sampling is violated
Examples include- TV call-in polls, internet surveys
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Probability Sampling: Simple Random Sampling
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Every element and every combination of elements has an equal change of being selected
Problem: Requires a list of sampling units
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The Development of Opinion and Market Research Before 1940s
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Naive outlook toward research based on:
WWI Propaganda
Orson Welles' "War of Worlds" (Oct. 1938)
Lack of Commonly-accepted research procedures
"Magic Bullet"
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The Development of Opinion and Market Research: During and After WWII
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Involvement of government in applied research
Columbia's “Bureau of Applied Social Research”
Lazarsfeld et al.: The People’s Choice
New developments in research techniques
“Reinforcement and two-step flow”
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The Development of Opinion and Market Research: During and after 1950s
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Sharp increase in privately-funded
PR and advertising research
Emergence of telephone and online
polling
As a result: development of (industry)
research as we know it today
“Contingent and delayed effects”
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Ways to Use Research
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Ways to use research
Achieve credibility with management Define/segment publics
Formulate strategy
Test messages
Prevent crises
Monitor competition
Generate publicity
Measure success
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Induction
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Observation: (E.G from Exploratory Research)
It seems that people tend to remember the first and last items from a list better than items in the middle
Theory: Theory of primary and recency effects in information processing
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Deduction
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Theory: Media cover the George W. Bush campaign unfavorably.
Observations: Based on content analyses, overall articles or news casts about George W. Bush tend to be balanced
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Research as a Cyclical Process
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Theory (e.g., Fear appeals are an effective way to campaign to young people against undesirable social issues)
Concepts (Fear appeal, effective, young people, etc.)
Hypotheses – (1) exposure to fear appeals will frighten
young people (2) Heightened fear will lead to behavioral
respons…
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The Research Process
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Client Question
Budget / Schedule
Conceptualization
Selecting a Research Strategy / Methodology
Operationalization
Population / Sampling
Questionnaire Construction
Field Work / Data Collection Pretest
Data Entry / Processing / Cleaning
Data Analysis
Report Writing
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Planning
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It must be strategic and systematic
ex. linked to the "big picture" and based on research
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Methods of Planning
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Observation
Sample surveys
Experiments
Focus groups
Content analysis
Statistical data (Census)
etc.
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Methodology of Planning
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How to combine different methods in order to answer a specific research/client question
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Eight Elements of a Program Plan
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Situation
Objectives
Audience
Strategy
Tactics
Calendar/Timetable
Budget
Evaluation/Measurement
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Eight Elements Situation
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What is the _____ of your organization?
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Situations needed for a PR Program
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Remedy a problem
One time launch of a product or service
Reinforce a message or their reputation
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Eight Elements Objectives
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What are you trying to accomplish?
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Differences between Goals and Objectives: Goals
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General, mission-oriented, not measurable
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Differences: Objectives
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Grow out of goals, are clear, and measurable
Used to communicate and plan campaign
Provide an evaluative benchmark
Can be output or impact
Focused as well as informational
Attitudinal/Motivational/Behavioral
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Objectives Should Be
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Linked to goals
Linked to a specific public
Linked to a specific outcome
Linked to research
Written explicitly, clearly
Measurable
Time-defined
Designed for a single public & single response
Stretching, but attainable
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Sample Objectives
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Informational, Attitudinal/Motivational, Behavioral
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Sample Objectives: Informational
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Changing message exposure, comprehension, and/or retention
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Sample Objectives: Attitudinal/Motivational
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Modify the way an audience feels
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Sample Objectives: Behavioral
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The Modification of a behavior
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Tips for writing objectives
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What public is addressed?
Is the objective informational/awareness, attitudinal/acceptance, or action/behavior?
What effect? Receiving? Understanding? Remembering? Increasing interest? Achieving behavior?
What directionofchange? Increase? Decrease? Maintain?
Provide a specific measur…
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Tips for writing objectives continued
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To (direction) (effect) among (public) about (what) by (measure) within (timeframe)
Example:
To increase awareness among UGA senior ADPR majors about the 4+1 master's program by 60% within the next three months
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Eight Elements: Audience
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Who will your campaign target and why?
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Audience
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Public relations rarely target a so-called "mass audience"
Rather, market research is done to pinpoint specific publics and where they are located
Targeting decision-making is based on trends in demographics, growth opportunities, costs, etc
and increasingly, at the individual- level
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How might we target communications?
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Age, gender ethnicity
Marital status
eduction level
income level
location
media use habits
political, religious beliefs
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Eight Elements: Strategy
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How will your campaign meet your objectives?
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Eight Elements: Tactics
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The Specific activities of the campaign
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Strategy
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How and why a campaign is to succeed
Ideas generated and rationale is shared for how the tactics will work on the targeted audiences, etc.
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Tactics
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The nuts and bolts of the strategy
Goes beyond rationale and focuses on the specific activities, materials, etc. to implement the strategy
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Program Planning: Strategy and Tactics
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Brainstorming sessions and breakout groups
Bring everyone up to speed on the situation and client
Share goals and objectives
Creation of springboards from client and participants
I wish ... would happen
What if we ...
Break out groups to address these springboards
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Program Planning: Strategy and Tactics (Continued)
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Followed by smaller “creative” meetings
Handful of ideas are fleshed out in greater detail
If an event, where in the city should we have it? Why?
Thinking in terms of fit with advertising strategy (which may be through a different firm) or fit with other brands, etc.
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Eight Elements: Calendar/Timetable
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When will the campaign run? What sequence? etc
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Calendar/Timetable
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When are key messages expected to be most meaningful to target audiences?
Seasonal timing Holiday timing
e.g., charitable donations during holiday season
Days- Hours
of-the-week timing -of-the-day timing
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Calendar
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How should we schedule the specific tactics?
When is the ideal movement for exposure to a campaign?
Are consumers in info-seeking mode? Purchase mode? Are consumers in info-seeking mode? Purchase mode? Are interest and attention high?
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Calendar Planning is Influenced by
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Size of the budget
Consumer-use cycles
Competitors' advertising/tactics
share of voice
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Three scheduling methods
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Continuity, Flighting, Pulsing
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Eight Elements: Budget- Categories
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Staff Time (70%)
Out of pocket expenses
Most elements of a campaign or strategy will require money allocated to each category
Figure can change suddenly and drastically, this means that you constantly have to revaluate your process
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Eight Elements: Evaluation/Measurement
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Evaluate if you met objectives
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Evaluation
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Relying on metrics to determine if objectives have been met
Key decision is what metric will you be able to use?
e.g., Sales data?
e.g., Follow-up calls for information? e.g.
etc.
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Communication
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The process and means by which objectives are actually achieved.
The process by which tactics are developed and implemented
a.k.a execution
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Key Goals of PR Communication
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Message Exposure
Accurate Dissemination
Acceptance of the message
Attitude Change
Behavior Change
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Key Goals: Message Exposure
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Intended audience exposed to message in intended form
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Key Goals: Accurate Dissemination
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Basic message remains intact as sent through various media and it reaches the correct publics
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Key Goals: Acceptance of the Message
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Audience pays attention, retains, and accepts the message
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Key Goals: Attitude Change
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Shift in attitudes in direction of message
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Key Goals: Behavior Change
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Make donation, purchase service, etc.
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Grunig's Phrases of Communication
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Audience receives the message, pays attention to the message understands the message, believes the message, remembers the message, acts on the message
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Audience See the Message: Five Types of Communication Media
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Public Media, Controlled Media, Interactive Media, Events,One o
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Public Media
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Used to build awareness and credibility
One-way form of communication with low audience engagement, high reach and relatively low costs
Paid advertisements and product placements in traditional media (e.g., TV, newspapers, magazines, radio, etc.)
Out-of-home media (e.g., billboards, p…
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Controlled Media
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Used to promote and provide greater detail than
public media
Largely one-way form of communication characterized by a smaller reach, somewhat higher levels of audience engagement, and moderate costs
Typically not quite as “mass” in appeal
e.g., brochures, newsletters, direct mail, exh…
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Interactive Media
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Used to respond to queries, engage
audiences and exchange information
Typically a two-way form of communication with high levels of audience engagement, moderate levels of reach, and moderate costs
e.g., email, blogs, wikis, websites, social media, electronic kiosks, webinars, podcasts…
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Events
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Motivate participants and reinforce
existing attitudes
Can be a two-way form of communication with moderate audience engagement, low reach, and moderate costs
e.g., meetings, conferences, contests, presentations, trade shows, contests, demonstrations/rallies, etc.
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One-on-one Communication
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Obtain commitments, negotiate,
and solve problems
Two-way communication with high audience engagement, low reach and high costs
e.g., personal visits, lobbying, telephone calls, and other face-to- face interactions
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Theoretical Perspectives
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Media uses and gratification
Asks: "What do people want from media?
Rather than what are media's impacts on people
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Passive Audiences
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May only pay attention because they seek a diversion
May require stylish and creative messages to garner their attention
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Active Audiences
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Already engaged in you message, so different, more detail-based tactics likely to work best
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____ Percent of Learning is accomplished through sight and ____ percent through hearing
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83% of learning is accomplished through ____ and 11% through ____
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Present a ___ early in the message
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need
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People pay attention to messages that with ____ values
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preexisting values (channeling)
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Audience attention is typically ___ at the beginning of the message and ___ from there
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high; wanes
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Communicator must understand
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cultural differences, education levels, and the role of jargon
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Readability formulas: Flesch
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measure of avg. sentence length and number of one-syllable words
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Readability: Cloze
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ease with which reader can read sentence where words are removed
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Making Sure the Message is Understood
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Use symbols, acronyms, ease-to-remember slogans
Be creative
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Things to Avoid in Messages
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Jargon, cliche, hype, euphemisms, discriminatory language
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Making Sure Message is Believable and Credible: Source Credibility (Sleeper Affect)
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While we may initially discount new information as being biased because of the source, over time, we forget the source and retain the information
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Source Credibility: Message Context
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Making sure your message is backed up by your actions
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Source Credibility: Cognitive Dissonance
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We strive for consistency between our attitudes and between our behaviors and we take steps to ensure this is the case
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Source Credibility: Involvement
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For low involvement groups, cues like source attractiveness can enhance credibility, while high involvement groups will pay more attention to the actual logic of the message
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Making sure the message is memorable: Repetition
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More than half of people need to hear a message three to five times before they believe it
Need to deliver message in a variety of ways across multiple communication channels
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Making Sure the Audience Acts on the Message: Five Stage Adoption Process
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Awareness, interest, evaluation, trial, adoption
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Five Stages: Awareness
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via advertising or other properly placed media
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Five Stages: Interest
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ideally leads to an interest in publics to learn more about product, service, or organization
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Five Stages: Evaluation
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Consumer evaluates the idea or product in terms of needs and wants met
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Five Stages: Trial
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Consumer samples the product or idea
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Five Stages: Adoption
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Idea or product is integrated into individual life
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Roger's Diffusion of Innovations: How does the innovation spread
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Relative Advantage, Compatibility, Complexity, Trialability, Observabilit
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Roger's: Relative Advantage
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is the innovation better than the idea it replaces
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Roger's: Compatibility
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Is the innovation consistent with needs of potential adopters
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Roger's Complexity
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Is the innovation easy to incorporate for adopters
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Roger's Trialability
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Can the innovation be experienced on a limited basis first
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Roger's Observability
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Are the results of the innovation visible to others
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Convincing audiences to act on a message is also influenced by the proper targeting of your message:
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Primary, Secondary, Tertiary Publics
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Primary Public
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main target audience for whom you prioritize message strategy and tactics
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Intervening Publics
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Opinon leaders, friends, and family that have contact with your primary audience
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Moderating Publics
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Publics that share a common goal or philosophy with your primary public
Heavily influence the primary public
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The Fourth Step: Measurement
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The evaluation of results against agreed-upon objectives established during planning
Matter from which we collect PR-releated data
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____ improves the public relations process
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Evaluation
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Basic Evaluation Questions
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Adequately planned?
Message(s) understood?
How could strategy have been more effective?
Audiences reached?
What was unforeseen?
Budget met?
Future improvements?
And ...
Objectives achieved?
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Measurement becomes difficult without having developed _____
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a clearly established set of measurable objectives
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Informational objectives
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need to focus on "Message dissemination" or "audience exposure"
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Motivational objectives
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require public opinion surveys to determine how audience attitudes shifted
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Behavioral objectives
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require sales data
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Proper measurement means ____ the _____ as the cause of these changes
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isolating the campaign
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Measurement of Production
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Counts how many releases, photos, pitch letters, etc. were made within a specified time frame
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Emphasized ___ instead of ____
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quantity instead of quality
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Measurement of Message Exposure: Compile clippings/mentions
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most widely used metric
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Media Impressions
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Placement X circulation/viewership/listenership
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Advertising equivalency
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space/time x advertising rate
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Systematic tracking
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Analyze volume and content of media placements
Can get at tone of coverage
Comparisons to competitors
Percentage of time stories mention key phrases or information
Essentially, we can statistically model the coverage
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Information requests
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counting the number of requests for information a campaign generates
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Cost per person and Audience Attendance
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E.G. Super Bowl ads cost a lot, but reaches millions
How many people attend an event
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Audience Awareness
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Survey
Day-after recall
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Audience Attitude
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Related to awareness
Baseline/benchmark studies
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Audience Action
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The ultimate objective of any public relations effort
Measure desired behaviors
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Social Media leads
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tracking web traffic for all your sources and identifying top social sources
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Engagement duration
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time spent on your pages
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Bounce rate
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how quickly people "Bounce" away from your webpage after being directed there
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Membership increase and active network size
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how many followers do you have and are they active
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Activity ratio
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proportion of active to passive members
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Conversions
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Are your members subscribing to your news letters, making purchases, etc.
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Brand mentions
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how ofter is your brand being mentioned across social media
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Loyalty
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sharing of content, etc
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Virality
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also being re-shaped
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Blog interaction
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do people comment of your blog entries
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Barcelona Principles
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PR leaders from more than 30 countries
Global standards and practices
Drafted by European-based Association for Measurement and Evaluation of Communication (AMEC)
Input from IPR, PRSA, Global Alliance, International Communications Consultancy Organization
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Seven Principles
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Importance of goal setting and measurement
Measuring the effect on outcomes is preferred to measuring outputs
The effect on business results can and should be measured where possible
Media measurement requires quantity and quality
Advertising Value Equivalents do not measure the val…
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ADPR 3850: Test 1 - Flashcards