113 Cards in this Set
| Front | Back |
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Neurulation:
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where the neural plate becomes the neural tube. (w/in 1 month of conception)
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The lumen of the tube becomes the
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cerebral ventricles and the spinal canal
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Which vitamin helps prevent birth defects?
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Folic Acid
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Acencephaly:
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failure of the anterior end of neural tube to close
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Spina Bifida:
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failure of the posterior end of neural tube to close.
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Radial Glial Cells:
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neural progenitors: give rise to neurons and astrocytes.
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Symmetrical Cell Division
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both daughter cells become radial glia cells.
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Asymmetrical Cell Division
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one daughter cell becomes a radial glial cell, the other becomes a neural precursor cell
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Fate of the neural precursor cell depends on:
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gene transcription, position w/in ventricular zone, and environmental niche
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Dual Notch signaling leads to
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neural differentiation.
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Which genes determine neuronal differentiation?
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Hes genes. Activated by NICD.
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Hes genes upregulate
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bHLH and neuronal differentiation
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Adult neurogenesis occurs in
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the olfactory bulbs and hippocampus
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Where do cortical pyramidal neurons and astrocytes originate?
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In the dorsal telencephaon.
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Where do interneurons and oligodendrocytes originate?
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In the ventral telencephalon.
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What comes 1st in development of cortex?
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Cells migrate from the ventricular zone to form the subplate.
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What happens 2nd in development of cortex?
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Cells that form the cortical plate/layer VI migrate through the subplate.
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What happens 3rd in the development of cortex?
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Cells that form layer V migrate through the subplate.
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Lissencephaly is characterized by
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Lissencephaly is characterized by
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Lissencephaly is linked to mutation in the
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DCX gene & Reelin
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Reelin:
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a protein secreted by cells in the marginal zone. Allows for passage of radial glial cells through the subplate.
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Cell Differentiation:
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neural precursor cell takes on the appearance and characteristic of a neuron
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Determinants of differentiation include:
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where neuroblasts were born, spatiotemporal pattern of gene expression, signals from neighboring cells, specific inputs from sub cortical areas.
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Netrin is a
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chemoattractant.
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Slit is a
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chemorepellant.
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Growth cones are found
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on the end of neurites.
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In synapse formation
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growth cone attaches, contact recruits synaptic vesicles, and neurotransmitter receptors accumulate.
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Necrosis:
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passive cell death, affects a group of cells
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Apoptosis:
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active self-destruction, affects an isolated cell.
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Trophic factors
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secreted by the target cell, picked up at the axon terminal and transported back to the cell body.
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Neurotrophic factors regulate
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expression of genes, growth, longevity
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2 types of trophic factor receptors:
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Trk, p75
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p75 neurotrophic receptors aid in:
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neurite growth, cell death, and cell survival
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Trk neurotrophic receptors aid in:
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cell survival, neurite outgrowth and differentiation, and activity-dependent plasticity
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Hebbian Strengthining at Synapses:
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strong NMDA receptor activation recruits AMPA receptors to the dendritic spine.
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Monocular Deprivation experiment:
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suturing one eye closed during postnatal development. Hardly any neurons respond to deprived eye in adulthood.
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Strabismus:
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induced mis-alignment of 2 eyes during early postnatal development by cutting muscles in 1 eye.
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What types of vision are impaired in strabismus?
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Binocular vision and depth perception are impaired.
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Critical periods of development:
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times when experience and neural activity have maximal effect on aquisition of a particular behavior.
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Peripheral Nerve Regeneration:
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Macrophages remove debris, expression of growth genes, proliferating Schwann cells promote axon regeneration.
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Central Nerve Regeneration:
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Oligodendrocytes, microglia, and astrocytes form a glial scar tissue.
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Neurocrine communication involves
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synaptic transmission of neurotransmitters
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Endocrine communication involves
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Endocrine cells releasing hormones into the bloodstream
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Homeostasis:
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maintaining body's internal environment within a narrow physiological range.
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Hypothalamus integrates 2 types of responses to challenges:
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somatic and visceral.
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Magnocellular neuroendocrine cells are found in the
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Paraventricular nucleus and Supraoptic nucleus
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Which type of hypothalamic cells control the posterior pituitary?
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Magnocellular cells.
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Oxytocin:
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hormone in charge of lactation, bond formation.
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Vasopressin:
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hormone in charge of blood volume, water retention.
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Milk Letdown Reflex:
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sense from suckling sent to hypothalamus causing release of oxytocin. Acts on mammary glands to cause lactation.
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Hypothalamic control of the anterior pituitary:
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Hypothalamic hormones act on pituicytes to stimulate hormone secretion.
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Which glands does the Anterior Pituitary affect?
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The gonads, adrenal glands, and thyroid gland.
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How does negative feedback occur on the anterior pituitary?
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Through peripheral hormones.
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ANS preganglionic neurons originate in:
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the spinal cord or brainstem.
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The Sympathetic NS:
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fight or flight
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The Parasympathetic NS:
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rest and digest
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Acute Responses to stress involve both the
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hypothalamus and the ANS
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HPA activation occurs through
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CRH and ACTH, slow (from the adrenal medulla).
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Sympathetic Nervous system activation:
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increases blood flow to muscles, release of glucose, and blood pressure.
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HPA axis activation:
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Glucose usage, protein --> glucose, liberation of fats, increase blood flow
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What turns the stress response off?
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Negative feedback/the Parasympathetic NS
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Symptoms of prolonged stress:
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fatigue, diabetes, hypertension, ulcers, apathy, impaired disease resistance.
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Norepinephrine area:
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Locus Coeruleus
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Norepinephrine is involved in:
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arousal, attention, sleep-wake cycles, mood
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Serotonin area:
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Raphe Nuclei
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Serotonin is involved in:
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wakefullness, sleep-wake cycles, mood.
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Dopamine area:
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Substantia Nigra/Ventral Tegmental Area
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Dopamine (SN):
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projects to caudate nucleus/putamin to regulate voluntary movement.
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Dopamine (VTA):
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projects to prefrontal cortex/subcortices in reward.
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Acetylcholine area:
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forebrain and brain stem systems.
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Acetylcholine (Medial Septum and Basal Nucleus):
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project to hippocampus/cortex. Degenerates in Alzheimer's.
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Acetylcholine (Pontomesencephalotegmental area):
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projects to thalamus. Regulates excitability of sensory nuclei.
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Motivated behavior:
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driven by need/want. Can vary in intensity.
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Humoral Response:
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hypothalamic neurosecretory cells respond by regulating release of pituitary hormones.
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Visceromotor Response:
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hypothalamic neurons adjust the balance of sympathetic and parasympathetic regulation of organs.
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Somatic Motor Response:
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hypothalamic neurons trigger an appropriate behavior.
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Glucose is stored:
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in liver and skeletal muscles (glycogen) and adipose tissue (triglycerides).
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Anabolism:
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conversion of glucose to its stored forms
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Catabolism:
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conversion of stored forms back to glucose.
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Leptin:
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hormonal signal (secreted by fat) that conveys info about fat stores. More fat = more leptin.
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Where is leptin detected?
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Neurons in the arcuate nucleus.
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Elevated leptin causes secretion of
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aMSH and CART.
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aMSH and CART activate:
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release of TSH and ACTH from the anterior pituitary.
Also the sympathetic nervous system.
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TSH and ACTH hormones cause
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increased metabolism.
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aMSH and CART inhibit:
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feeding behavior by inhibition of lateral hypothalamic neurons.
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A drop in leptin activates release of:
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NPY/AgRP.
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NPY/AgRP inhibit:
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neurosecretory neurons that stimulate release of TSH and ACTH from anterior pituitary.
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NPY/AgRP activate:
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the parasympathetic nervous system and feeding behaviors.
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Orexigenic signals:
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increase drive to eat after a period of fasting.
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Satiety signals:
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decrease the drive to eat as we consume the meal and begin digestion.
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Cephalic phase:
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initial, anticipation of food.
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Gastric Phase:
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stomach is filled.
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Substrate Phase:
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nutrient absorption by the gut.
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Orexigenic signals include:
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time of day/time since last meal, sight/smell of food, conditioned stimuli.
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Ghrelin:
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hormone produced by stomach when empty. Activates NPY/AgRP neurons in the arcuate nucleus.
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Hedonic feeding:
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we like to eat food.
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Drive reduction feeding:
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eating reduces hunger
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What pathway do most of addictive drugs act on?
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The Mesolimbic dopamine reward system
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The Mesolimbic Dopamine Reward System is made up of:
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the VTA, nucleus accumbens, and the prefrontal cortex.
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Physical drug dependence:
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biological. Develops from tolerance to drug affects = resetting of mechanisms maintaining homeostasis.
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Withdrawal Syndromes:
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when drug administration stops and homeostasis is disrupted. Opposite to drug abuse responses.
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The motivator for continued drug use =
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avoidance of withdrawal.
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Coke, amphetamines and meth act on:
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exciting dopamine receptors in the prefrontal cortex and the nucleus accumbens.
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Morphine, alcohol, and marijuana act on:
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inhibiting GABA neurons in the VTA.
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Nicotine acts on:
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exciting dopamine neurons in the VTA.
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How do drugs affect gene expression?
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Bound D1 receptor activates a G-protein cascade in which CREB causes translation/cription of a new protein (∆-FosB).
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Brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF):
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stimulates neural differentiation and plasticity changes.
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Transcription factor ∆Fos-B:
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phosphorylates transcription factors, increasing gene expression and sprouting synaptic development.
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The First-Pass effect:
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all drug dose absorbed from the gastrointestinal tract is fist delivered to the liver by the portal vein. A fraction is metabolized in the liver before circulation.
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In the first-pass affect what is reduced?
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Oral bioavailability of the drug.
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Naloxone:
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blocks opiate receptors and reverses the effects of agonists at these receptors.
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Primary cause of death from opiate overdose:
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respiratory depression
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Suboxone:
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used for treatment of opiate addiction/withdrawal. (Bioprenorphine + Naloxone).
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NEU 302: EXAM 1