PSYCH 2410: FINAL EXAM
132 Cards in this Set
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Decentration
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focus on more than 1 thing at a time
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Reversibility
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ex. water pouring task
- can think backwards
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Seriation
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lining up things hierarchically on either height or weight
- if A is bigger than B and B is bigger than C, whats the order?
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Transitivity
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- ascending and descending order
- seriation mentally
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Limitations in middle childhood cognitive development
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- concrete vs abstract (mental representations of things)
- decalage - if you understand something in 1 area, that doesn't mean it immediately applies to other areas
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relations in concrete operations to specific experiences
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- school and culture influences mastery of specific skills
- more practice at something will lead to early mastery
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Brain development in middle childhood
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- increase in myelinization
- corpus callosum increases processing between 2 hemispheres
- NTs increase in speed of processing and capacity
- frontal lobes increase inhibitory control (better control over actions and emotions)
- increasing lateralization (experience and language affec…
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production deficiencies
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cannot produce strategies that are effective (ex. how do i study?)
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control deficiency
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can't execute or control strategy (ex. don't study enough)
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utilization deficiency
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performance doesn't get better even when using strategy
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effective strategy use
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doesn't occur until mid-elementary
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Attention and working memory study
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- individual differences in memory but overall, memory capacity increases w/ age
- evaluated non deliberate attention
- this is important w/ language development
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Working memory and vocab study
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learning new words is related to existing vocab and nonword repetition (phonological memory)
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Development of Memory Strategies
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1. Rehearsal
2. Organization
3. Elaboration
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Rehearsal
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repeat things
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Organization
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grouping related items
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Elaboration
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create a shared meaning between at least 2 things in diff categories
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Memory Strategies study
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memory span predicts overall strategy use
- memory span predicts strategy effectiveness but NOT production
- Young kids are more likely to be utilization deficient (can produce strategy but cannot use it) but this is not related to intelligence or metamemory
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Memory and knowledge study
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- expertise compensates for knowledge on text recall tasks
- but aptitude is beneficial for strategic sort-recall tasks
- an increase in knowledge does not mean there will be an increase in strategies for recall of memory
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Memory: Source Monitoring study
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- everyone was able to differentiate between actions they did vs actions someone else did
- younger kids had problems remembering which actions they performed vs those that they imagined
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metamemory
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- awareness of thought
- knowing
- knowing about knowing
- knowing how to know
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development of metamemory
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- from unlimited to limited
- from global to specific strategies
- from simple to complex strategies (looking at interactions between multiple variables)
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Metamemory study
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- metamemory predicted recall
- strategy use predicted recall slightly
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Memory development
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- working mem is stable for individuals but increases w/ age
- memory becomes strategic and deliberate in middle childhood
- kids produce strategies b4 using them
- kids are better at using strategies in familiar domains
- strategy development is related to metamemory and understanding
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Problem solving: learning new strategies study
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- explanations given by kids help them to use the strategy more effectively
- older kids provide better explanations
- kids use explanations provided by adults
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problem solving in social contexts study
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- older kids plan more
- moms w/ younger kids work more at joint attention
- all children get better form pre to post test
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reading by ages 9-14
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read to learn new info rather than reading to learn how to read
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Literacy: the home environment study
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- reading frequency predicts literacy skills
- affective quality predicts the motivation for reading
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whole language approach
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children should be exposed to text in its complete form - poems, letters, stories
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phonics approach
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children should 1st be coached on phonics (the basic rules on translating written symbols into sounds)
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Literacy: the school environment study
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- both groups benefited from phonics instruction
- traditional helped w/ oral reading but whole language helped w/ comprehension
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Counting study
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- young kids learned well w/ small sets and manipuable objects
- older kids had an increased in ability w/ larger sets and more abstract sets
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Math study
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- improvements in speed and accuracy w/:
1. intro of new strategies
2. increasing use of more efficient strategies
3. more efficient execution
4. more adaptive choices among strategies
- children use multiple strategies to solve probs
- stable differences in indv strategy use and pe…
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learning from peers study
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- collaborative work was more beneficial than independent study
- novices greatly benefited from peer experts
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Inferiority (Erikson's industry vs. inferiority)
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Ages 6-11
A sense of inadequacy
-Based on assessment of personal in comparison with others (Social comparison).
crucial for ego development
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self concept in middle childhood
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- more "psychological"
- more comparative
- more diverse (academic self, social self, athletic self, physical self)
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the "academic self"
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2 theories: entity and incremental
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entity
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academic goal= performance
- success is attributed to easy task and I am smart.
- failure is attributed to me being dumb
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incremental
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academic goal=learning
- success is attributed to hard work or easy task
- failure is attributed to lack of effort or difficult task
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emotional development of middle childhood
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- emotional expression (feel pride or guilt)
- emotional understanding (can explain emotions based on internal states, some events can even envoke mixed emotions)
- emotional regulation (manage negative emotions that threaten their self esteem)
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Levels of perspective taking
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0. undifferentiated (self has diff thoughts from others)
1. social-informational (diff thoughts occur b/c diff people have diff info)
2. self-reflective (step into someone else's shoes)
3. third-party (see it from outside view)
4. societal (societal values effect views)
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emotional expression study
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- facial expression correlated w/ self-reported emotion
- girls displayed and reported more emotion than boys
- age was related to reported emotions but not facial expressions
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socialization of emotional expression study
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- assess effectiveness of "family expressiveness"
- (+) and (-) expressiveness not related
- (+) expressiveness similar across contexts but not (-)
- children w/ low expressive moms were more likely to be (+)
- children w/ high expressive moms were more likely to be (-)
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coping
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- dealing w/ aversive events/emotions
- strategies include:
1. problem-focused
2. emotion-focused
3. distraction
4. avoidance
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problem-focused coping
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1. they appraise the situation as changeable
2. identify the difficulty
3. decide what to do about it
- ex. when they are confronted by an angry friend, they problem solve and seek social support
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emotion-centered coping
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internal, private, and aimed at controlling distress when little can be done about an outcome
- ex. when confronted by an angry friend, they will think of positives in the situation
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emotional regulation study
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- child's coping resembles parent coping, family environment, & relationship quality
- maternal coping is closely associated w/ child coping
- active problem solving and emotional support is better predicted than avoidance
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empathy and morality
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- distributive justice (fairness and reciprocity)
- ethics of care (community and relationships)
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moral transgressions study
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responses to moral transgressions revolved around intrinsic consequences
- responses to conventional transgressions revolved around social order
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tolerance study
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- no simple increase of tolerance w/ age
- tolerance related to domain of disagreement
- disagreeing others were seen less positively
- diversity of opinion was important in some areas and uniformity was important in others
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the development of moral reasoning study
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- children paired w/ peers showed more improvement in moral development during conflict than w/ parents
- related to "active transacts"
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the development of friendships
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- movement into a peer group (popular, rejected, neglected kids)
- gender differences
- the role of the family
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the basis of friendships study
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as children increased in similarity in academics, behavior, and social attributes they became more likely to be BFFs
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Peer Status
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1. Popular (prosocial/antisocial)
2. neglected
3. controversial (positive and negative traits)
4. rejected (rejected-withdrawn/rejected-aggressive)
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popular-prosocial kids
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perform well in school, communicate w/ peers well, and solve social probs well
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popular-antisocial kids
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"tough" boys
- athletically skilled but cause trouble w/ authority and relationally aggressive (mean to others but seen as "cool")
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rejected-aggressive kids
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show high rates of conflict, hyperactive, impulsive behavior
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rejected-withdrawn
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passive and socially withdrawn
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controversial and neglected kids
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have positive and negative attributes
- neglected are actually pretty social skilled
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effects of rejection
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peer rejection leads to acting out later, especially if repeated
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4 types of withdrawn kids
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1. unsociable
2. passive-anxious
3. active-isolate
4. sad-depressed
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unsociable kids
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- tried but no good at joining groups
- highest neglect
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passive-anxious kids
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- get upset when things don't go well but don't try to join a group
- end up pretty okay, just really shy
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active-isolate
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- choose not to interact w/ others
- have the least social skills
- highest rejection, which they are okay with
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sad-depressed
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highest neglect and rejection
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peer status and academics study
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- neglected kids have good academics w/ high motivation (self-reliant)
- aggressive rejected kids are the "problem kids" and not good academics
- submissive rejected (withdrawn) kids have good academics
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Gender differences in friendships
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- types of activities
- types of social groups
- types of interactions
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gender differences in aggression
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- girls are more likely to engage in relational aggression
- relational aggression kids are at risk for rejection, loneliness, depression, and isolation
- girls talk about problems w/ friends or probs at home while boys discuss probs w/ sports
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gendered experience study
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- girls told longer more detailed stories of their experiences
- girls talked more about their feelings and emotions
- girls talked more about other people and relationships
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family influences on friendships
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- parents (parental monitoring)
- siblings (rivalry and companionship)
- only children
- types of families (traditional/adopted/gay/divorced/bended)
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maternal discipline and externalizing behaviors
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mom's hostile attributions (info processing biases) led to harsh discipline which led to externalizing of behaviors
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stability of family interactions
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stable over time
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The Heritability of IQ
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- genetic and environment influences
- for low SES, environment is a larger contributor
- for high SES, genetics=main contributor
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development during middle childhood
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1. increase in complexity and differentiation (think about 2 things at a time)
2. increase in ability to plan & problem-solve
3. increase in ability to reflect on own thought processes and other's
4. increase in reliance on peer group
5. increase in evaluation of self in comparison to…
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Hypothetico-Deductive Reasoning
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- consider multiple variables
- consider 1 variable at a time
- seek disconfirmatory evidence
(start w/ a hypothesis and then deduce inferences that you can then combine)
ex. pendulum problem
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Propositional logic
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inductive and deductive reasoning
- adolescents' ability to evaluate the logic of prepositions w/o referring to real world circumstances
ex. "either the chip in my hand is green or not green." True or False?
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Academic self-concept
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- competence and task values decrease w/ age in all areas
- girls think they are better at language while boys think they are better at math and sports
- change in competence correlates w/ change in task value
- changes are the largest in the beginning
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Gender and math
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- girls have more anxiety and see themselves as less competent
- biggest gender difference (12-14 yrs old)
- girls don't want to be "smarter" than friends or boys
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the role of teachers study
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teachers in math:
1. stereotype math as a male domain
2. overrate male's capacity
3. higher expectations of males
4. more positive attitudes towards males
- no diff between gender of teacher
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the role of parents study
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- boys get better test scores in math but girls have better grades in the class (grade 12)
- low parental involvement leads to decrease in grades for both girls and boys (grade 8)
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the role of culture study
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- relation between interest and performance for girls is greatest in the US, over Taiwan and Japan b/c the US pushes for you to explore your interests
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Results of PISA report
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need help for high achieving girls and low achieving boys
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sex differences in mental abilities
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boys-spatial
girls-language
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consequences of puberty
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physical changes in body weight and size
- changes in self-esteem (body image, eating disorders)
- emerging sexuality
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emotional adjustment w/ timing of puberty
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biggest problems w/ early emerging girls and late maturing boys, especially girls
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Body Image
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after puberty, girls have high expectations but low satisfaction
- females desire to lose weight=loss of control and low self esteem
- boys have an increase in control and increase in self-esteem after puberty
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anorexia nervosa
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about 1% of teen girls
- 6% will die from it
- has increased in the past 50 yrs
- most deny any problem
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Bulimia nervosa
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- 2-4% of teen girls
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cliques
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- small usually same-sex
- predict academic and social competence for girls, but not boys
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crowds
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- loosely organized groups of cliques
- usually mixed gender
- based on reputation and stereotypes
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Friendships
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- intimacy increases over time
- capacity for sustained intimacy increases over time
- girl-discuss
- boys-share activities
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Social Goals of Relational Aggression
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boys - achievement oriented
girls - more interpersonal issues (be in popular crowd)
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girls in cliques or crowds
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better peer relations and self-esteem
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How do peer friendships relate to romantic partners?
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- same-sex groups predict mixed group which predicts romantic relationships
- good clique (intimate) leads to good group which leads to good romantic relationship
- unpopular kids - those in a romantic relationship are doing poorly on emotional and behavioral adjustment
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longitudinal positive and negative consequences of adolescent dating (12 and 16 yr olds)
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- over involvement in dating at age 16 leads to poorer psychological functioning at both ages and a decrease over time
- quality of dating relationship is related to social competence
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partner violence
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- 1st episode is around 15 yrs old
- male or female as aggressor
- look at familial predictors
- frequent exposure to corporal punishment leads to dating violence
- interparental violence does NOT predict violence
- low parental involvement DOES
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Parenting influence on friendships
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parental monitoring, parental encouragement, and joint decision making influences:
1. academic achievement
2. drug use
3. self-reliance
- these all effect crowd membership
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peer conformity disposition
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- tendency to go along w/ peers
- leads to misconduct
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11th and 12th graders
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secure - go to mom 1st
- insecure dismissing (dismiss the need of having close relationships) - go to BF/GF or self
- insecure preoccupied (very anxious and reliant - opp of dismissing)
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relational competence
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empathy, perspective taking in both peer and romantic relationships
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parental attachment vs emotional adjustment
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parental attachment effects social skills and emotional adjustment
- social skills effect relational competence which also effects emotional adjustment
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development of self in adolescence
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- changes in self concept
- changes in self-esteem
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changes in self concept
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- abstract - "i am intelligent and here are the reasons why"
- connected - connect self through diff domains
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changes in self-esteem
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- personal characteristics and choices (puberty, drug use, gender)
- family context (parental warmth and acceptance)
- societal influences - Europeans have lower self-esteem than African Americans
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What is identity?
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Who you are
- What you value
- Directions you choose to pursue
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Erikson's Theory of Identity
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- formation of identity as achievement
- identity crisis or identity exploration
- conflict of identity vs identity confusion
- outcome affects later stages
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identity exploration
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sort through behaviors and ideas
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identity confusion
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occurs if you don't make informed decisions early on
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Marcia's Identity Statuses
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- Identity achievement
- moratorium
- identity foreclosure
- identity diffusion
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identity achievement
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committed themselves to their decisions after exploration
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moratorium
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still exploring but haven't yet committed
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identity foreclosure
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accepting what someone else has chosen for you so no exploring
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factors affecting identity status
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- personality
- family
- peers
- school/community
- larger society
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parents and identity development
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parent involvement and emotional support from parents predicts higher identity achievement
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gender and identity development
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- personality and identity are moderated by gender
- males and females are similar in achieved and foreclosed identities
- males and females are not similar in moratorium and diffused
- males - autonomy, self-definition
- females - based on relationships w/ other people
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development and representation of identity in narratives
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- narratives are influenced by life and life influences (you tell diff people diff things in diff ways)
- narratives are used to communicate and represent ourselves
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"parent voice" in narratives
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more "parent voice" at 16 leads to higher self-esteem, more optimism, decrease in loneliness and depression, and a decrease in diffusion or foreclosure w/ identity at age 20
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Gender, identity, and narrative
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3 types of narratives:
1. "John Wayne" - tough, masculine, strong
2. "Florence Nightingale" - empathy, perspective taking, concern
3. "Vulnerable" - fear, sadness, anxiety
- no gender diff in "John Wayne" and "Vulnerable"
- women more likely to use "Florence Nightingale"
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Psychoanalytic/ Psychosocial
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- idea of "developmental tasks"
- attachment issues
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Behaviorism/ Social learning theory
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modeling
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piaget
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- qualitative; stage like development
- thought is organized and adaptive
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information processing
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- memory, memory strategies (sort-recall), coping w/ social-emotional situations
- ex. rejected, neglected kids believe that someone is trying to hurt them (which is inaccurate)
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Vgotsky
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- the role of social interaction (critical for development of kids)
- scaffolding (joint attention)
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Cognitive development across adulthood
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increasing abilities:
- vocab, wisdom, reasoning
decreasing abilities:
- memory, source monitoring (when did you learn it? how did you learn it?), speed of processing and efficiency (peak in the 20's)
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Social-emotional development across adulthood (Erikson)
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- intimacy vs isolation
- generativity vs stagnation
- integrity vs despair
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intimacy vs isolation
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establishing close ties w/ people
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generativity vs stagnation
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have they given to the next generation?
- child-rearing=most common
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integrity vs despair
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reflect on the kind of person you have been
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Friendships across adulthood
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- can become more important as time goes on
- deep relations w/ friends or siblings
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gender roles across adulthood
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- begin to merge between adolescence and emerging adulthood
- gender roles separate when you become parents
- blurring of gender roles when kids leave home
- around age 50, gender differences are gone
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text recall
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kids are asked to read a story and recall it
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sort recall
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kids have to remember a set of items and the best strategy is to sort them into categories
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Study Guide: Exam 3