PSYCH 2410 1st EditionExam # 1 Study Guide Lectures: 1 - 7Lecture 1 (January 21)What is Development?- Plato, Aristotle, Rousseau, Locke, Watson o Plato emphasized innate knowledge and discipline. He believed that discipline was the key to proper parenting. He believed that understanding whether development was driven fundamentally by nature or nurture was an important intellectual pursuit, and he thought that nature was more important. He thought that you are born with innate concepts that let you recognize different individual instances, such as recognizing that a dog is a dog.o Aristotle emphasized experience and fitting a technique to an individual. He thought that different children should be raised according to their own individualneeds. Also in contrast to Plato, he thought that nurture and experience was where knowledge comes from.o Rousseau agreed with Plato, thinking that nature is more important than nurture.However, he believed that not all knowledge is innate. Children are innately good, but they learn actively by interacting with their environments, such as objects, and people, and not as passive receivers of instruction. He believed that formal education should not begin until the “age of reason,” or the age of 12.o Locke, like Aristotle, emphasized nurture. He described the newborn’s mind as a tabula rasa, or a “blank state.” It is written on by the infants’ experiences that were thought to shape the mind and behavior of the child.o Watson is known as the father of behaviorism. He believed that all behavior can be explained by responses to external stimuli, particularly rewards and punishments. He said that child development can be controlled by rewards and punishments, known as associative learning. You can shape a child’s behavior with rewards and punishments—behaviors that are rewarded are more likely to occur again while behaviors that are punished are less likely to occur again.Lecture 2 (January 23)Themes in Development and Methodology- The Scientific Method o Reliability Reliability is the degree to which independent measurements using the same instrument are consistent. Basically, an experiment or study can be considered reliable if it yields the same results repeatedly, time after time. Inter-rater reliability is when two or more people, using the same methodof measuring, yield the same, or very similar, results. A measure is reliableif you get the same results regardless of who is doing the measuring.- Example: 2 different people using the same tape measure. If both people get very similar measurements, then the tape measure canbe considered a reliable resource. Test-retest reliability is when a measure yields the same results on different testing occasions. A measure is reliable if you get the same results regardless of when the measure is used.o Validity  Validity is when the test measures what it intended to measure.  Internal validity is when you are actually testing what you think you are testing. Examples of internal validity are IQ tests and infant studies. In order for a test to be internally valid, confounds in the study must be accounted for. That is, external factors outside the study that could influence the results of the study must be minimized so that we know that the test studied what it intended to study.- For example, in an IQ test, some groups of people may be more familiar to some terms, practices, or ideas than other groups of people. We cannot say that one person is not intelligent because they weren’t familiar with something that was on the IQ test. External validity is when the effects observed in a study can be generalized beyond the experimental context. For example, can you be sure that behavior studied in a lab will be the same way that someone will behave in a more natural environment?- Experimental Designs o Observation (naturalistic, structured)  Structured observation is done in a lab when researchers design a specifictask or situation that will elicit behavior relevant to a hypothesis. An advantage of a structured observation is that it ensures that all children ina study experience the same exact thing, because external factors are controlled for, and causes and effects can be determined. However, a disadvantage is that a study done in a lab is not in the child’s natural environment. While a structured environment may be reliable and internally valid, it may not have external validity. Naturalistic observation is when a researcher observes an activity in a natural environment without interfering. This type of observation is very externally valid, because it looks at conditions in a natural setting, but researchers are not able to control the type of treatment their subjects get. There may be external factors that affect a type of activity or behavior that a researcher is not able to control for.o Experimental (longitudinal, cross-sectional, micro-genetic)  Experimental designs are a way for researchers to control a group’sbehavior and compare the outcomes. There must be at least two comparable groups in an experiment, with a large sample size and randomly assigned. The groups must also get the exact same treatment except along the dimension of interest—there will be one group receivingthe dimension and a control group receiving a placebo dimension. The longitudinal approach is when the same children are studied multipletimes over a substantial period of time. It is incredibly useful in revealing stability and change over time, but it is almost impossible to not lose children over time due to dropping out or moving away. The cross-sectional approach is when children of different ages are compared on a given behavior or characteristic over a short period of time. It is useful for revealing similarities and differences between older and younger children. However, it does not yield information about individual differences over time or about the patterns of change shown bythe same children. The microgenetic design is when the same children are studied repeatedly over a short period of time. The children recruited are thoughtto be on the verge of an important developmental change, and they are intensively studied as the change is occurring. This method provides insight into the process of change and into individual differences in change process, but it does not yield information about stability and change over long time periods.o Correlational 