PSYCH 240: EXAM 3 CHAPTER 12
37 Cards in this Set
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Definition/structure of a problem
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Problem has an initial state and a goal state to be attained
non-obvious way from getting from first to second
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Types of problems
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well-structured
ill-structured
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Well structured/defined
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completely specified starting conditions, goal state, and methods for achieving this goal
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Ill-structured/defined
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aspects aren't clearly defined (finding a mate)
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Stages in problem-solving
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representation
planning
execution
checking
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Problem space
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whole range of possible states and operators (only some of which will lead to goal state)
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Representation
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restructuring the problem
can be key to solving a problem
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Monk problem representation
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text based representation difficult
modify representation to solve problem
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Paper folding problem
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Representation: visualization doesn't help solve problem
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Isomorph
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Equivalent problem, different representation
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Use of Analogy
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Retrieve a representation of a problem from memory that is similar to the problem you currently face
People miss it still bc they focus on surface similarity and ignore deep similarity
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Solving Duncker's problem
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with hint: 30%
analogy + hint: 80%
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Hindrances in forming new representation
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top-down preconceptions
functional fixedness
trapped by easy or familiar perspective
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Top-down preconceptions
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when we look at a new problem, we tend to encode it in a way consistent with long-term memory
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Maier's Rope problem and Duncker's candle problem
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demonstrate functional fixedness
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Trains-Meeting problem
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example of easy and familiar perspective hindrance
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Luchin's Water jar problem
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example of mental set
find yourself stuck in the mental set
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Algorithm
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Completely specified sequence of steps that is guaranteed to produce an answer
May be slow or laborous
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Heuristic
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Short cut rule/rule of thumb
never guaranteed to produce correct answer
usually quick and easy
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Difference reduction/hill climbing
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At any point, select the operator that moves you closer to the goal state: is new state more similar to goal?
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Means-end analysis
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Identify largest difference between current state and goal state
Set as a subgoal reducing that difference
Find an operator to reduce that difference
If operator can't be applied, new subgoal
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Working backward
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Transform goal state so it is more like initial state
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Hobbits and orcs problem
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A problem involving transporting hobbits and orcs across a river that has been used to illustrate how the means-end strategy must sometimes be violated in order to solve a problem.
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Insight problems
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Answer comes in a sudden flash
Doesn't involve lots of computation
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Incubation
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time away from a problem provides new insights or otherwise facilitates the problem solving process
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Cheap-necklace problem
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can use incubation period to help solve problem and rid of functional fixedness
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Metcalfe and Weibe
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Studied insight vs. non-insight problems
Insight problems were solved suddenly
Non-insight problems were solved gradually
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Mutilated checkerboard problem
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How a problem is stated greatly affects its difficulty
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Expertise in problem solving
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rich, organized schemas
spend more time on representation
less means-end analysis
move forward, not backward
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Expertise in chess players
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experts memory no better than beginners
memory for meaningful configurations much better
memory for random configurations much worse bc schemas
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Ten-Year Rule
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Takes someone 10 years of intense training to become an expert
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Deliberate practice
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takes 10,000 hours of deliberate practice to master something
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Creativity
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the ability to combine concepts to provide novel solutions
the ability to produce novel solutions to problems
the ability to produce original and practical discoveries
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divergent thinking
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pattern of thinking in which individuals produce many answers to the same question; more characteristic of creativity than convergent thinking
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Convergent thinking
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creativity depends on ability to form many novel associations among ideas
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Why does incubation help you reach a problem's solution:
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Time spent away from the problem helps shake off unproductive mental sets
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Smith and Blankenship
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Incubation effects produced when initially fixate on an incorrect solution
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PSYCH 240: QUIZ #6