BIOL 1103K: EXAM III
87 Cards in this Set
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Muscles generate movement by ______
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shortening
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Exoskeleton
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external "case"
example phylum: Arthropoda
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Endoskeleton
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hard, internal "frame"; commonly bone
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Hydrostatic
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a liquid skeleton
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3 types of skeletons
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exoskeleton, endoskeleton, hydrostatic
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Antagonistic muscles
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oppose each other to move the skeleton; in pairs; attach to opposite sides of the exoskeleton, across the middle of the joint
ex: Biceps and Triceps; as to contract your triceps relaxes while the Biceps contracts to lift your arm
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Tendons
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bin muscle to bone
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Ligaments
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Bind bone to bone at joints
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Flexor
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contraction of a flexor muscle bends a joint
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Extensor
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contraction of a extensor muscle straightens a joint
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Hydrostatic skeletons
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- rely on hydraulic pressure to move
- Antagonists: longitudinal and circular muscles
- example: worms
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If the quadriceps muscle in your leg is nonfuctional, what would you expect?
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You could not straighten your leg
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3 types of vertebrate muscle
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skeletal, cardiac, smooth
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Skeletal
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voluntary muscle; well defined structure, also called striated (striped) muscle
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Cardiac
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involuntary muscle; only in the heart; similar to skeletal muscle; well-defined structure
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Smooth
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involuntary muscle; digestive tract, blood vessels, reproductive tract; loosely arranged; contraction can be stimulated by stretching
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Muscle fibers
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muscle cells are called muscle fibers;
contain many myofibrils
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Myofibrils
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Myofibrils
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Sarcomeres
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repeating units of actin and myosin proteins
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Sliding filament theory
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Explains sarcomere contraction between muscles
-- myosin filaments slides along actin, shortening the muscle
-- ATP is necessary
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Contraction in 4 steps
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Reach, reattach, pull detach
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Reach
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myosin breaks ATP into ADP, energy used to extend the myosin head
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Reattach
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myosin binds to actin
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Pull
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myosin snaps backward, shortening the sarcomere
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Detach
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myosin binds ATP and releases actin
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Soon after death, bodies stiffen. Why does this occur?
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Relaxation of muscles requires ATP. Without ATP, the muscle stiffens.
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Neuromuscular junction
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synapse between a motor neuron and a muscle fiber
1. neuron releases the neurotransmitter
2. action potential (electrical signal) spreads across membrane of the muscle fiber
3. Contraction
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Calcium
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is essential for contraction and is stored in the sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR)
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The nervous system controls
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contraction of skeletal muscles
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Muscles will continue to contract until they run out of
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1) Calcium
2) ATP
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Muscle Fiber Types
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fast twitch, slow twitch
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Fast twitch
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larger diameter, stronger contraction, fatigue quickly
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Slow twitch
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thin, more mitochondria, myoglobin, weaker contraction more endurance
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Cardiac muscle powers
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the heart; cardiac muscle is found only in the heart
- smaller than most skeletal muscle cells, and possess only a single nucleus in each cell
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Cardiac muscle fibers are connected to one another by
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intercalated discs
-- strong cell-to-cell attachments within the discs hold cardiac muscle fibers firmly to one another, preventing the forces of contraction from pulling them apart
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If you were to treat a muscle with a drug that prevented release of calcium from the SR, what would happen?
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The muscle would not be able to contract
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Single nucleus
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cardiac muscles and smooth muscles
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Smooth muscle fibers are directly connected
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by gap junctions, allowing the cells to contract in synchrony
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Botox and muscle paralysis
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prevents muscle contraction
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Myostatin
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- regulates growth of muscle tissue
- knockouts of Myostatin gene have twice the musculature
- potential for abuse
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Working unit of the skeletal muscle is
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the sacromere
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Nerves control skeletal muscle by
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- releasing the neurotransmitter acetylcholine at neuromuscular junctions
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Release of calcium from sarcoplasmic reticulum
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Release ofacilitates binding of myosin to actin
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We need 6 different types of nutrients
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Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals and water
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1 calorie
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heat needed to raise 1 g H2O 1°C
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kilocalorie (kcal)
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1000 calories; Calorie
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Fats
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contain >2 times the amount of energy than an equal amount of carb's
- good for energy storage
- slowly accessed
- 9c/4c (per 1gr)
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Carbs
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- rapidly accessed
- stored in small quantities by animals
- Glycogen -- short-term energy reservoir
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Carbohydrates
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•include sugars such as glucose, from which cells derive most of their energy; sucrose (table sugar); and polysaccharides, long chains of sugar molecules
•Cellulose, starch, and glycogen are all polysaccharides composed of chains of glucose
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Protein
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- amino acids
- proteins form muscle, connective tissue, nails and hair
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Excess energy
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is stored as glycogen and fat
- utilized when fod is limited
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Kwashiorkor
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sever malnutrition characterized by swelling
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Rickets
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vitamin D deficiency
- soft deformed bones
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Scurvy
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vitamins C deficiency; skin, tooth, gum, and blood vessel damage
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Goiter
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iodine deficiency
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Minerals
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can only be obtained in the diet or dissolved in drinking water
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Digestion of cellulose
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- animals cannot digest cellulose
- requires bactieral activity
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Ruminants
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- animals that chew the cud
- 4 chambered-stomach
- coughing up and chewing cud helps break up woody materials
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4 steps to extracting nutrients from food
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- ingestion
- digestion
- absorption
- elimination
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Epiglottis
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a flap of cartilage at the root of the tongue, which is depressed during swallowing to cover the opening of the windpipe; blocks food entry to the trachea
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Digestion in the stomach
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- mechanical digestion
- chemical digestion
- enzymatic digestion by protein
--- stomach absorbs very little
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The small intestine is assisted by 3 other organs
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- pancreas
- lived
- gall bladder
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Digestion finishes
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in small intestine
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Pancreas
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secretes juices into the small inestine
- bicarbonate -- neutralizes stomach acid
- enzymes -- break down food
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Majority of chemical digestion occurs in
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small intestine
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Liver produces
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bile; bile is stored in gall bladder
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Bile acts like a detergent. How does this aid in digestion of fats
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It separates fat into smaller particles that have greater surface area accessible to fat-digesting enzymes
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Absorption begins in the
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small intestine
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Gut bacteria
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60% of dry mass feces is bacteria
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Celiac disease
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intolerance to gluten
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Blood enters each kidney through a
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renal artery
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Blood exits the kidney through a
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renal vein
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Renal Cortex
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the outermost layer of each kidney where urine is formed
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Renal pelvis
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"kidney bucket"
collects urine and conducts it into the ureter
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Ventricles force blood directly into
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arteries
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Ureter
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a narrow, muscular tube that contracts rhythmically to propel the urine to the bladder
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Bladder
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a hollow, muscular chamber that collects and stores urine
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The avg adult bladder ca hold about
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a pint of urine
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Urine exits the body through the
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urethra
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Nephrons
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microscopic filters in the human kidney
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Glomerulus
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capillary network of lying inside the glomerular capsule and functioning in filtration
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Two major parts of nephron
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- fluid filtered out of the blood through the porous capillary walls
- collects fluid filtered out of the blood
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Bowman's capsule
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cuplike chamber which surrounds the glomerulus and collects fluid filtered out of the blood
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Which molecule contains a binding site for the attachment of myosin heads?
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Actin
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The site of communication between a neuron and muscle fiber is called a
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neuromuscular junction
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The most abundant cell type in blood is the
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Erythorocytes (red blood cells)
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which mineral is important for carrying O2 in the blood
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iron
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BIOL 1103K: TEST 1