Historical FoundationsPlato and Aristotle believed that the long-term welfare of society depended on the proper raising of childrenPlato emphasized self-control and discipline as the most important goals of education. Plato believed children were born with innate knowledgeAristotle agreed with Plato that that discipline was necessary, but he was more concerned with fitting child-rearing to the needs of the individual child. Aristotle believed knowledge came from experienceJohn Locke (1632-1704)Like Aristotle, viewed children as a Tabula Rasa, or blank slate, whose development largely reflects the nurture provided by the child’s parents and broader societyBelieved most important goal of good child-rearing is growth in character and to build character, parents to set good examples of honesty, stability and gentlenessNeed to avoid indulging childrenDiscipline before freedomJean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1788)Children are innately goodBelieved parents should give children maximum freedom from the beginningEmphasis on natureChildren learn through spontaneous interactions with objects and people; NO INSTRUCTIONFormal education should begin at “age of reason” (12 years)The Beginning of Research on ChildrenDuring the industrial Revolution (eighteenth and nineteenth centuries), children, some as young as 8 or 9, began working 12+ hours a day in factoriesHazardous conditionsPoorly paid with no legal protectionsSocial reformers began to study this effect on children’s developmentEarl of Shaftesbury’s success: law forbidding employment of boys and girls under age 10Established legacy of research conducted for the benefit of children and provided some of the earliest recorded descriptions of the adverse effects that harsh environments can have on their developmentCharles Darwin’s article later in the nineteenth centuryPublished article “A biographical Sketch of an Infant” which presented his careful observations of the motor, sensory and emotional growth of his infant son, William“baby biography”-a systematic description of William’s day-to-day development-represented one of the first methods for studying childrenContinues to influence thinking of modern developmentalists in wide range of topics: infants’ attachment to mothers, innate fear of natural dangers such as spiders and snakes, sex differences, aggression and altruism, and mechanisms underlying learningHistorical FoundationsThe Emergence of the Disciplines TheoriesSigmund Freud (1856-1939)Psychoanalytic theory: Our unconscious biological drives, especially sexual, developmentPsychosexual StagesOral (0-1 yr)Anal (1-3 yr)Phallic (3-6 yr)Latency (6-11 yr)Genital (Adolescence)CriticismsOveremphasis on sexualityFreud did not directly study childrenJohn WatsonBehaviorist theory: proposed that children’s development is determined by environmental factors, especially the rewards and punishments that follow particular events and behaviorsEnduring Themes in Child DevelopmentNature and Nurture: How do Nature and Nurture Together Spare Development?Nature: biological endowment, in particular, the genes we receive from our parentsNurture: wide range of environments, both physical and social, that influence our development, including the womb in which we spend the prenatal period, the homes we grew up in, the schools we attend….Every characteristic we possess- our intellect, our physical appearance, our emotions-is created through the joint workings of nature and nurture, that is, through the constant interaction of our genes and environmentNeither nature nor nurture is more important than the other, nor are the two equally as important. All developmental outcomes result from the constant interaction of nature and nurtureLittle Albert StudyOhman & Mineka Study: some fears stem from innate mechanismsWe can learn to fearJohn Watson (1878-1958): BehaviorismAll behavior can be explained by responses to external stimuli-particularly rewards and punishmentsInternal (mental) concepts need not be positedChild development can be controlled by rewards and punishments = associative learningLittle Albert: feared in learnedNurture can overcome natureThe Active Child: How Do Children Shape Their Own Development?Attentional patterns, language use, and playFirst begin to select their own development through their own selection of what to pay attention to1 month olds choose to look at mother’s faceEnd of 2nd month, infants smile and coo when focusing on mother’s face9-15 months when begin to speak, only if children are internally motivated to learn language would they practice talking when no else is around to react to what they’re sayingPlaying: dropping food tests parents’ reactions. Start to play make believe around 2 years oldActively seek out own environmentContinuity/Discontinuity: In what ways is development continuous/discontinuous?Continuous: process of small changes; treeDiscontinuous: series of sudden changesStage theories: propose the development occurs in a progression of distinct age related stages, muse like a butterfly. Entry into new stage requires sudden, qualitative changes; butterflyJean Piaget’s (1896-1980) Theory of Cognitive DevelopmentFounded the field of Cognitive Development: development of thinking and reasoningChildren go through 4 stages of cognitive growth, each characterized by distinct intellectual abilities and ways of understanding2-5: can focus on only 1 aspect of an event, or one type of information, at a time6-7: simultaneously focus on and coordinate two or more aspects of an eventProvided one of the broadest theories ever to account for changes in children’s thinkingPublished 1st paper at 10Doctorate in zoology, studies psychoanalysisStudies children’s intelligence in Paris1st of 60 scholarly books published before 30Appointed director, International Bureau of EducationChildren’s ability to read and write might improve continuouslyWhereas, motor actions might appear stage-like (crawling, walking, etc.)Mechanisms of Developmental ChangeCan be at multiple levels:Perceptual: auditory system, visual systemBrain development: frontal lobesStrategy use: problem solvingWhere do genes and learning experiences play in influencing this mechanism of effortful attention?Neurotransmitters: influenced by specific genes, chemicals involved in communications among brain cells; associated with the quality of performance on tasks that require effortful attentionChildren’s experiences also can change
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