number of protons Atomic Mass order observation question hypothesis predictions experiments conclusion Abiogenesis All life comes from an egg Molecules Two or more atoms Scientific Method connected through covalent bonds Atomic number number of protons plus neutrons Isotopes atoms of the same element that have a different number of neutrons resulting in a different atomic mass Covalent bond shared pair of electrons Polar non equal sharing of electrons leading to a difference in charge Non polar equal sharing of electrons leading to no charge difference Cation positive charged atom Anion negative charged atom Ionic bonds formed by electrical attraction between ions of opposite charge Hydrogen bond attractive electrostatic interaction of a hydrogen and electronegative atom They give water high surface tension heat of vaporation and heat capacity Peptide bond links amino acids together in polypeptides Disulfide bond bond between two S atoms stabilizing tertiary structure of polypeptides Ester bond linkage between fatty acids and glycerol of triglycerides Cohesion water sticks to itself Acids release H pH below 7 Basics accept H pH above 7 Chemical Heat molecules in motion Thermal Energy molecular kinetic energy Cellular Respiration converting biochemical into ATP Functional Group R groups of atoms with specific chemical properties and consistent behavior Amino H N H Amines Carbonyl O C H Aldehydes C O Ketones Carboxyl O C OH Carboxylic acids Hydroxyl OH Alcohols Phosphate O O P O O Organic phosphates Sulfhydryl SH Thiols Polymers made by condensation dehydration reactions and broken down by hydrolysis Proteins provide structure catalysis regulation movement transport and recognition in cells Polysaccharides used for energy storage and building materials consists of a long chain or polymer of monosaccharide s simple sugars such as glucose and are held together by a glycosidic bond Nucleic Acids store and transmit hereditary information Lipids diverse hydrophobic molecules which function as hormones steroids as part of biological membranes phospholipids and in energy storage fats Polypeptide long chain or polymer of amino acids connected in a specific sequence Within it the peptide bonds form a backbone with three characteristics R Group orientation side chains can interact with each other or water Directionality free amino group on left N terminus free carboxyl group on right C terminus Flexibility single bonds on either side of the peptide bond can rotate making the entire structure flexible Protein Structures Primary order of the 20 amino acids in the chain Secondary hydrogen bonding cases a helix which coils or b pleated sheet which folds Tertiary polar nonpolar and ionic side chains of the various amino acids can interact to superimpose a three dimensional shape on the polypeptide Quaternary protein structure resulting from aggregation of more than one polypeptide human RBC s have four polypeptides Chaperones facilitate folding of proteins Prions disease causing agents that are improperly folded proteins Enzymes catalysts of biochemical reactions in cells They speed up reactions and are highly specific They aren t destroyed and can be used over and over again They don t change an energy requiring reaction to one that is energy yielding They are proteins that bind reactants and convert them to products The information for making enzymes is stored as genes in DNA Cells make specific enzymes for each of thousands of different kinds of chemical reactions needed to grow develop and reproduce Activation Energy amount of free energy needed to start the reaction Free Energy measure of the change in potential energy and entropy that occurs in a chemical reaction lowest carbon dioxide then carbs then lips is highest Anabolic Reactions complex molecules are made from simple molecules reactions consume free energy complexity order increases endergonic Catabolic Reactions complex molecules are broken down to simpler ones reactions release free energy complexity decreases generates disorder exergonic DNA made up of nucleotides Contains phosphate group on 4 nitrogenous base on 1 and a 5 carbon sugar ribose Pyrimidine Cytosine Uracil RNA Thymine DNA have only one ring Purines Guanine Adenine two rings Backbone DNA RNA sugar phosphate Polypeptides NCC NCC NCC Linkage of Monomers DNA RNA condensation reactions phosphodiester bond linkage between nucleotides in polynucleotides Polypeptides condensation reactions peptide bond Functional Groups DNA RNA nitrogenous bases Polypeptides side chains 20 different side chains Polymerization Directionality DNA RNA 5 3 Polypeptides amino to carboxyl ends NCC Hydrogen Bonds Guanine and Cytosine have 3 Adenine and Thymine have 2 Gene Region of genome which encodes functional information that is expressed through RNA Classical unit of inheritance from parent to child Biochemical unit of DNA which encodes an enzyme Molecular biology unit of DNA which encodes a functional RNA Modern a unit of DNA including elements which encodes functional information Exon part of gene used in the final transcript Intron part of gene removed from the final transcript Bacteria no nucleus DNA in cytoplasm transcription and translation in cytoplasm Transcription and translation may be coupled Eukaryotes DNA in nucleus transcription in nucleus translation in cytoplasm transcription and translation may not be coupled RNA Polymerase is recruited to start site of transcription by other proteins DNA double helix is opened template strand is threaded into catalytic domain of RNA polymerase Transcription RNA polymerization occurs spontaneous exergonic RNA transcript exits through back of RNA polymerase DNA helix reforms transcription stops when RNA polymerase reaches termination signal RNA polymerase dissociates from DNA helix Genetic Code The codex for translating nucleotide information to amino acid information Major features nearly universal redundant unambiguous conservative first two bases are usually identical when multiple codons encode the same amino acid tolerant Ribosome RNA protein complex responsible for translation tRNA adapter molecules which specifies a specific amino acid for a specific set of nucleotides Aminoacyl tRNA a tRNA with a covalently attached amino acid Information transferred through translation tRNA is the adapter molecule that translates mRNA information to amino acid information one part of tRNA has an anticodon which pairs with a codon in the mRNA 3 end of