All organisms share five fundamental characteristics Energy Cells Information Replication Evolution Speciation The divergence of one species into multiple species by natural selection Phylogeny Actual genealogical relationships Scientific name Genus specie Ribosomes begin translation Biomolecular processes are constantly changing mRNA circularizes to bond Atoms joined via covalent bonds to form molecules Macromolecule 1000 atoms Electron orbitals Electrons prefer pairs when forming molecules Dalton mass of one proton or neutron Elements that share columns share properties Isotopes of some elements are unstable and decay at predictable rates radioactive decay Radio blots radioactive jello Used to detect many things in biology using electrophoresis DNA carries an electrical negative charge Covalent bond is when molecules share a pair of electrons double covalent bond is two pairs triple is three Ionic bond involves complete electron transfer between cations and anions Hydrogen bonds make water essential to life DNA held together by hydrogen bonds Water is polar and a tetrahedron Carbon is essential to life due to the functional groups it creates Review functional groups Two parts to chemical evolution Pattern component Process component Mole is 6 022x10 23 Avogadro s number molecules Weight of a mole is equal to dalton x grams A mole of water is 18 daltons One molar solution is equal to one mole per liter M mol L Acids release h in aqueous solution Bases accept hydrogen ions Chemical heat is molecules in motion kinetic energy Initial energy required to start a reaction is activation energy Carbon skeleton backbone of many organic molecules Amino groups consist of a nitrogen bonded to two hydrogens Amines act as a base and get a charge of 1 Phosphate groups consist of a phosphorous atom bonded to 3 oxygen atoms and double bonded to 1 oxygen atom Sulfhydryl group consist of a sulfur atom bonded to a hydrogen atom Water is a polar molecule O is partially negative H is partially positive Without polarity amino acids are hydrophobic Acid donor Base acceptor Disulfide bonding only occurs between cystiene groups Structure and function are very closely related Acids are hydrophilic due to slight positive charge Folding is facilitated by molecular chaperones Denaturing of proteins is done by breaking the bonds through raising Temperature pH Salinity Proteins can fold improperly prions Anabolic reactions in cells build molecules endergonic stores energy Catabolic reactions in cells break down molecules exergonic release energy These reactions must be catalyzed to occur fast enough for life Enzymes are catalysts of biochemical reactions They are highly specific They are not destroyed in the reaction and can be used over and over again They are proteins that bind reactants and convert them to products Cells make specific enzymes Delta G less than zero it s spontaneous Delta G greater than zero it s not spontaneous Free energy is a measure of the change in potential energy and entropy that occurs in a given chemical reaction Activation energy is the amount of energy that is required for a reaction to start occur Enzymes bind in a way that stresses covalent bonds and thus decreases the amount of activation energy needed for the reaction to proceed Reactants that the enzymes act upon are called substrates Enzymes change shape when they bond to a substrate Products have a lower affinity Regulation of enzyme activity Competitive inhibitors prevent substrate from bonding to the enzyme s active site by filling the active site Allosteric Activators change enzyme shape to allow for catalyzing Allosteric Inhibitors change enzyme shape to inhibit catalyzing Proteins are made from peptides synonymous with amino acids joined together by peptide bonds created to make polypeptides Proteins are accountable for Catalysis catalyzing reactions as enzymes Defense antibodies Movement actin and myosin used in muscle contractions Signaling receptor proteins Structure fingernails hair etc Transport ex Hemoglobin Zwitter Ion NH3 C COO R Zwitter Ion is the ionized form of amino acids in an aqueous solution Dimer 2 peptides Trimer 3 and so on Amine group farthest to the left N terminus Carboxyl group farthest to the right is called the C terminus Peptides are numbered left to right Primary structure order of amino acids Secondary alpha helix and beta pleated sheets formed by hydrogen bonds Tertiary three dimensional shape formed from folding and side chain interactions formed by hydrogen bonds ionic interactions van der waals and hydrophobic interactions covalent bonds and disulfide bonds bridges Quaternary combination of tertiary structures Many researchers believe that life began as a polymer of nucleic acid called specifically RNA RNA world hypothesis RNA hypothesis states that chemical evolution led to the creation and existence of RNA that could self replicate Nucleic acid polymer of nucleotides monomers Three components to a nucleic acid phosphate group bonded to the sugar 5 carbon sugar bonded to the phosphate and nitrogenous base nitrogenous base Sugar is an organic compound carbohydrate with a carbonyl group and multiple hydroxyl groups Prime symbols refers to the carbon s location on the sugar Phosphates are located at the 5 carbon Ribose has an OH group at the 2 carbon where deoxyribose only has an H Nitrogenous bases Purines double ringed adenine and guanine Pyrmidines single ringed thymine cytosine and uracil only in RNA Nucleic acids form through phosphodiester linkages bonds between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the hydroxyl group of the sugar of another nucleotide Phosphodiester linkage joins the 5 carbon on the ribose of one nucleotide to the 3 carbon s hydroxyl on the ribose of the other via the phosphate group Ribose RNA Deoxyribose DNA The phosphate sugar backbone is direction in that one end has an unlinked 5 carbon while the other has a unlinked 3 carbon Sequence of nitrogenous bases primary structure of the DNA RNA molecule Polymerization reactions that form nucleotides are catalyzed by enzymes and the process in endergonic heat is absorbed Molecules with triphosphate groups are said to be phosphorylated Addition of one or more phosphate groups raises the potential energy of substrate molecules enough to create an endergonic reaction Gel electrophoresis technique where charged molecules are placed in a specific gel and an electric pulse is run through it separating them by size