Psychology Exam 2CHAPTER 7: LEARNINGAssociative Learning: linking 2 events that occur together&Observational Learningmodeling: observing and imitating behavior. Ex. Boobo doll with kids beating. Classical Conditioning: learn to expect and prepare for specific events. Ex. Food or pain-Respondent behavior: actions automatic response to stimulus.Operant conditioning: learn to bring good results and avoid acts that bring bad results.-Operant behavior: operates on the environment to produce rewarding or punishing stimuli.Classical conditioning: (Pavlov)Neutral stimulus  Conditioned stimulusNeutral stimuli: elicits no response before conditioning- Unconditioned response: naturally & automatically- Unconditioned stimulus: what causes UR- Conditioned response: learned response to a previously neutral stimulus.- Conditioned Stimulus: triggers CRAcquisition: association between neutral stimuli & UCS takes place.Extinction: CS no longer signals CR.Spontaneous recovery: CR would reappear after short recovery.Generalization: respond to stimuli similar to CSDiscrimination: ability to distinguish between CS & similar stimuli.“Little Albert”: made afraid of white rat by making loud noise (which was afraid of). Generalized fear of rat with other things.Operant Conditioning:Law of effect: rewarded behavior is likely to occur.Reinforcer: any event that strengthens behavior followed.+ Positive reinforcer: add desirable stimulus. Ex. receiving pay.- Negative reinforce: remove undesirable stimulus. Ex. Pressing snooze.(Not punishment)Punishment: consequence that decreases frequency of following behavior.+ Positive punishment: behavior decreases when followed. Ex. Speeding ticket, spanking.- Negative punishment: behavior decreases when positive stimulus is removed. Ex. Time out from privileges, drivers license suspended.- Problems With Punishment: 1. Results in unwanted fears (teaching children by threatening)2. Convey no info of appropriate behavior.3. Causes aggression towards the person doing the punishing.4. Models aggression as a way to cope with problems.Reinforcement scheduleFixed-Ratio: reinforcement behavior after set # of responses. Ex. By 10 coffee get 1 free.Variable ratio: after unpredictable #. Ex. Sometimes winning the lottery.Fixed Interval: after fixed time period. Ex. Receive allowance every Sunday.Variable interval: unpredictable time period which produces slow-steady responses.Ex. Checking email.CHAPTER 8: MEMORYAttkinson-Shiffron’s 3 Stage processingEncoding: forming a memory code (entering through keyboard)Storage: maintaining encoded info in memory overtime. (saving data in file)Retrieval: recovering info from storage.Types of memory:- Short term - Long termEncoding: automatic (unconscious) or effortful (conscious)- Effortful: usually requires rehearsal or conscious repetition.- Spacing Effect : learning overtime > cramming- Serial Position Effect : recall 1st & last heard best. (Primacy- first heard; Importance) (recency- last heard)Organizing memory:Chunking: organizing items into a familiar unit.Hierarchy: complex info broken down into concepts & further into categories& subcategories.Sensory Memory:Iconic: visual stimuli memoryEchoic: auditory stimuli memoryDuration of working/short term memory: (memorizing letters and dates in class)Working: active processing of incoming info & long term.- 20 sec without strategies- Full Capacity = 7 +/- bits at once Kinds of stored info:- Explicit: facts & experiences consciously declared.o Episodic: own experiences (episodes in life)o Semantic: knowledge, facts, & info.- Implicit: (non-declarative) unconsciously learned. Things that the individual does not know or declare what they know. (Motor-skills)Flash bulb memories: clear memories of emotionally significant events.RetrievalRecall: retrieve info using effort. (Fill-in-the-blank test)Recognition: identifying them amongst others. (mult. Choice)Relearning: shows how much time is saved when learning material for the second time.Retrieval cues: activates memories of associations to specific memory. Ec. Fire truck- red, hose, truck, fire.Context-Dependent Memory: (environment) recall info better in the same environment/context where it was learned. Ex. Water/water > land/waterState-Dependent Memory: (emotional) recall better when in the same mood that we learned it. Ex. Learning at point of drunkness.Déjà vu: cues from current situation may unconsciously trigger retrieval of earlier similar experience. Forgetting:- Encoding failure: can’t remember what we don’t encode.- Storage Decay: poor durability of stored memories decay (forget w/o going over)Retrieval Failure: memory was stored, but can’t be accessed tip-of-tongue phenomenonInterference: Retroactive: new learning interferes with old memory.Proactive: old learning interferes with new memory.Motivated Forgetting: people unknowingly revise their memories.Repression: banishes anxiety-arousing thoughts, feelings, and memories from consciousness. Ex. Painful memory such as war battle.Memory Reconstruction: filter or fill in missing pieces of info to make our recall more coherent. (teacher read words in class & some thought girl was a word)*influenced by schemas*info may/may not be accurateMisinformation effect: incorporating misleading info into one’s memory of event.CHAPTER 9: THINKING, LANGUAGE, INTELLIGENCEThinking/Cognition: process that involves knowing, understanding, remembering and communicating.1. Concepts: grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, or people.2. Problem Solving3. Decision Making4. Judgement formationProblem Solving: uncertainty of how to reach a problematic goal.- Trial & error: IDEALo Identifyo Defineo Exploreo Acto Look- Algorithms: try every possibility to reach solution. (guaranteed solution)- Heuristics: thinking strategies used to make judgements and solve problems efficiently (not guaranteed solution)- Insight: sudden realization of problem solution Obstacles in problem solving: - Confirmation Bias: tendency to search for information that confirms a personal bias. Ex. War @ Iraq- Fixation: inability to see a problem from a fresh perspective.o Functional fixedness: tendency to see objects, and their functions, in certain fixed and typical ways.- Irrelevant info- Assumed contraintsTypes of Heuristics:- Representativeness heuristics: judged the likelihood of how well they fit description by their representation of a particular prototype. (matching)- Availability