LAB PRACTICAL STUDY GUIDE LAB 1 SCIENTIFIC METHOD Discovery Science large amounts of data survey system to discover patterns and correlations Scientific Method steps to develop knowledge 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 problem observation collect background info state hypothesis state predictions test predictions draw conclusions report conclusions qualitative descriptive quantitative numerical compound microscope 1000x resolving power spectrophotometer measures color and used to quantify concentration of materials in a solution assay analysis to determine presence and or amount of substance in a sample inductive specific info observes deductive general specific prediction field diameter high magnitude high field diameter low magnitude low FdH MH FdL ML Field of View 1 mm 1000 micrometers for field diameter 4 2 blocks across 4200 micrometers etc FdL the diameter of the 10X zoom not the scanning zoom to find FdH use the formula cytoplasm pulls away from cell wall hyper more more dissolved hypo less less dissolved more water in order to raise or lower contrast when looking through the microscope close and open the diaphragm LAB 2 EVOLUTION Evolution accumulation of genetic changes with in populations over time micro evolution change in trait over few generations macro over many generations Evolution by Natural Selection 1 natural phenotypic variation 2 heritability variation 3 more offspring produced than will survive 4 non random survival and reproduction Fitness adaptations characteristics that improve fitness stabilizing selection favors most common variable most rare variations are lost directional selection favors one of the extremes variation at the other end is lost disruptive selection favors the rare variations most common is lost can lead to speciation classification based on possession of common characteristics phylogeny reflects evolutionary history species are named with a binomen Genus and species systematics scientific study of biodiversity and relationship among lineage taxonomy description and classification of organisms Maximum Parsimony minimize number of evolutionary changes ancestral shared between ancestor and current organism derived characteristics that developed more recently homologous derives from common ancestor share a common evolutionary history analogous those that have adapted to a similar purpose but are not derived from a common ancestor monophyletic taxon contains a common ancestor and all descendants paraphyletic taxon common ancestor and some not all descendants understand peppered moth experiment and lizard phylogeny Domain Kingdom Phylum Class Order Family Genus Species LAB 3 MITOSIS AND MEIOSIS Eukaryotes mitosis and meiosis DNA and histones chromatin Prokaryotes binary fission no protein single strand of DNA genome all chromosomes and traits Mitosis nuclear division 2 nuclei I PMAT interphase prophase metaphase anaphase telophase 1 prophase chromosomes condense darken membrane disappears nucleolus is gone chromosomes become visible 2 metaphase align on plane metaphase plate 3 anaphase move towards poles 4 telophase 2 daughter nuclei produced chromosomes reach poles cytokinesis cytoplasm division 2 cells plant cell plate animal cleavage furrow Meiosis PMAT 1 and PMAT 2 microsporocytes undergo meiosis and the model org was a lilly P1 crossing over occurs at chiasmata homologous chromosomes synapse form tetrad of chromatids crossing happens in diplotene M1 tetrads of chromatids line up centromeres of sister chromatids are oriented towards same poles A1 homologous move to opposite poles T1 sister chromatids finish moving cytokinesis no DNA synthesis between meiosis 1 and 2 cell plate forms meiosis 2 may be delayed for a period of time easiest way to tell between 1 and 2 on slides is that 2 will be happening in 2 cells 2 is exact same as mitosis in mitosis each daughter has same number as parent think photocopying in meiosis each diploid parent undergoes reductive division to form 4 haploid cells Haploid 1n 1 set of genes 1 set of chromosomes cannot divide by meiosis each daughter cell is haploid Diploid 2n 2 sets of genes 2 sets of chromosomes divide by mitosis or meiosis 2 sets of chromosomes per nucleus Sister Chromatids duplicated chromosomes Homologous Chromosomes 2 chromosomes of the same loci LAB 4 URINALYSIS urinalysis screen for disease by examining color and turbidity reagents chemicals that react together to produce a product s blank used to calibrate the spec standard sample of reagents and known amount of a substance unknown sample of interest pH concentration of H ions in a solution low pH 1 6 acidic more H high pH 8 14 acidic more base units than H pH 7 neutral equal quantity of H and base units Hemoglobin the O2 carrying blood protein red brown DNS used to measure amount of glucose present reacts with carbonyl group in sugars aldehydes or ketones more glucose more brown carbs remove aldehyde chains from glucose rings reacts with carbonyl group Biuret measure protein present copper sulfate binds to peptide bonds liking the amino acids more protein more purple Spec measures the proportion of light that passes through the solution when using the spec set left knob dark to infinity then with the blank inside set right knob light to 0 absorbance is directly proportional to the concentration of glucose and protein in the DNS and Biuret assays higher concentration higher absorbance Cu Au Cs As or Cu Au Cs As if you wanted to measure concentration of hemoglobin red you would use a wavelength that is 600 or opposite of red in order to measure what is absorbed red Color Spectrum 400 UV 400 purple 550 green 700 red 800 infrared Urine Analysis Problems Glycosuria 6 mg mL sign of diabetes pregnancy brain damage or stress Proteinuria 3 mg mL sign of kidney damage Hemoglobinuria sign of renal damage LAB 5 ENZYME ACTIVITY enzyme organic catalyst that accelerates a rxn by lowering the activation energy required substrate substance on which an enzyme acts inhibitor decreases rate of rxn competitive binds to enzymes active site noncompetitive binds to a different region of the enzyme but changes shape of active site so the substrate can not bind cofactor substance necessary for enzyme to function normally specifics substrate pNPP enzyme alkaline phosphatase product pNP and Pi change in absorbance change in time calculate the rate of reaction ABSF ANSI X 10 Rate 10 minutes TF TI What will happen with pNP production if no enzyme slow no substrate no reaction complete