BIO LAB PRACTICAL Lab 1 The Scientific Method scientific method a series of steps a scientist uses to develop knowledge 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 The Problem or Observation Collect Background info State your hypothesis State your predictions Test the predictions Draw conclusions Report Conclusions Quantitative Data numerical and preferred data precise Qualitative Data not numerical colors shapes sizes Tools of Science 1 2 Spec20 Calorimeter Compound Light Microscope jective lens a focus away from rather than toward the slide the slide should not move toward the ob b High power only fine adjustment c BEFORE removing the slide make sure on lowest power obj is in position d NEVER remove a slide from under a high power lense switch to low power first 3 Assay Fh Ml Fl Mh 1um 0 001 mm As mag increases FOV gets smaller INVERSELY proportional Objective Lense x Ocular Lens Total Magnification Lab 2 Evolution and Phylogeny Evolution genetics and population the accumulation of genetic changes within populations over time changes in the heritable traits of a population of organisms as successive generations re place one another decent with modifications Allele one of two or more alternative forms of a gene found at a particular locus on homologous chromosomes Key determinants of anatomies and behaviors Microevolution only FEW generations within a population Macroevolution over many generations causing populations to diverge enough to form new species Phenotype observable physical and biochemical characteristics of an organism determined by genes and environmental influences Only NATURAL SELECTION leads to ADAPTIVE EVOLUTIONARY changes Systematics the scientific study of species and the lineages they represent Phylogenetic Systematics organize and classify them according to their evolutionary relation ships Phylogenetics the study of the evolutionary relationships among these species and lin eages Taxonomy the identification and classification of species ex Homo sapiens Genus specific epithet either all italic or underlined Morphospecies anatomical features physical biological concept species can interbreed to produce offspring but can t interbreed with a differ ent species Adaptation changes for better survival Maximum Parsimony the goal is o minimize the number of evolutionary changes or events re quired to arrange all of the included organisms in the tree common ancestor amniotes Ancestral characters plesiomorphic those shared between an extant organism and an ancestral organism Derived characters apomorphic those that have developed more recently homologous Ancestors 1 2 3 polyphyletic don t have a common ancestor monophyletic common ancestor paraphyletic common ancestor in some not all though reptiles and birds Homologous same structure different functions Analogous same function not from the same ancestor ex bat wing and bird wing are used for flight no common ancestor though y variable dependent plasmylized cells x variable independent sucrose concentration Lab 3 Cell Division Ploidy the number of chromosome sets n a nucleus or cell haploid 1n diploid 2n DNA histones chromatin prokaryotic cells circular DNA eukaryotic cells linear DNA proteins called histones humans 23 different chromosomes 46 total 22 autosomal 1 sex chromosome X or Y amitosis no spindle mitosis a thread process STAGES 1 2 3 4 5 Interphase G1 S G2 Prophase Metaphase Anaphase Telophase Polyploidy the cell or nucleus has more than two copies of each homologous chromosome plants Lab 4 Biological Molecules Assay determines concentration chemical assays quantify macromolecules Reagents chemicals react to produce a product Urinalysis a suite of analyses used to screen for diseases ranging from leukemia and diabetes to kidney disease and UTIs crenations examine the color and turbidity cloudiness Urine pH imbalances slightly acidic between 5 and 7 signs of metabolic or respiratory acidosis or metabolic disorders alkaline urine UTIs lower pH more protons Glycosuria increase glucose levels diabetes mellitus DG 0 6 mg glucose mL from pregnancy excessive stress brain damage Proteinuria increase protein levels Glomerular damage GP in the kidney excessive exercise cold exposure acute abdominal disease Hemoglobinuria high levels of free hemoglobin in the blood contained within erthrocyte levels should be low due to excessive erythrocyte lysis renal damage or contamination of the urine by men strual flow Blank calibrate the zero end Standards have a known amount of the material being assayed and are used to make a standard curve DNS Dinitrosalicyclic acid initial form is yellowish reduced form is orangish red DNS IS REDUCED BY THE CARBONYL GROUPS found in aldehydes and ketones more glucose darker brown orange color Protein chemistry proteins are composed of long chains of amino acids linked together by pep tide bonds biuret method the blue copper ions appear to bind to peptide bonds forming a purple complex the more proteins the more purple COLORS 400 purple 450 blue 500 green 550 green yellow 600 orange 650 orange red 700 red Cu Au Cs As Cu concentration in unknown Cs concentration in standard Au absorbance for unknown As absorbance for standard Lab 5 Enzyme Activity Competitive Inhibitor binds to the enzymes active site Noncompetitive Inhibitor binds to the region of the enzyme other than the active site allosteric region inhibitors decrease rate of reaction cofactors when enzymes function normally substrate reactant in an enzyme reaction alkaline phosphatase p Nitro Phenyl Phosphate pNPP to make pNP Pi pNPP colorless substrate pNPP enzyme alkaline phosphatase products Alkaline phosphatase and pNP Pi Rate Change in Absorbance Change in Time Catalyst lowers the activation energy Always add the enzyme last substrate concentration part of lab SERIAL DILUSIONS 4 Types of Specificity absolute 1 group 2 linkage 3 stereochemical 4 Isomers 1 Structural same shape different bonds 2 3 Geometric stereo different shape same bonds Enatiomers mirror 3D images Protein Chains 1 2 3 Primary oooooooooooooooo Secondary ooooo to make up a HELIX Tertiary hyrdophillic hydrophobic chains make it up As concentration increases rate increases Adding substrate higher absorption rate will grow and then level off As enzyme concentration increases rate increases continuing to add enzyme gives a higher rate of reaction 37 C is when enzyme is most efficient What happens at 100 C reaction with enzyme and nonenzyme tubes heat allowed for exchange denaturation once was too