Introduction to Philosophy 1050 Sect 003 Final Exam Study Guide Introduction to Ethics coined by Aristotle good of the individual Objective universal actual unbiased unchangeable impartial No such thing as objectively valid principles because of differences in individuals cultures etc Subjective relative biased partial personal changeable Two types of Relativism 1 Cultural Relativism descriptive describing what is different cultures have different ethics and values 2 Ethical Relativism normative describing what it should be ought to be there are no universal ethical principles To get to cultural to ethical relativism must get over the That s just your opinion hole There is no Truth except this statement goes into a circle no absolutes nothing is certain everything is just an opinion Three Ethical Theories 1 Virtue Ethics character less systematic of the three moderation and habit bridge the gap by acting as a Good person Aristotle 2 Utilitarianism consequences not on motives or actions bridge the gap by maximizing happiness and minimizing pain John Mill 3 Deontology Deon Duty obedience to laws obligations duties Kantianism bridge the gap by obeying the categorical and practical imperatives Kant People inherently good or do they learn how to be good compelled to rediscover through contemplation the eternal Plato knowledge of the Good forgotten during the trauma of birth wisdom Since all being comes from the Good all truth is within us Aristotle all things have telos a design and purpose eudaimonia To actualize telos is to be happy and flourish Altruistic actions selfless actions can lead to eudaimonia The telos of the human being is actualize excellence in living arete by acting in accordance to the Golden Mean of moderation we become by doing The Good Life the Nicomachean Ethics is an attempt to describe what it takes for a human being to live a good life Teleological Nature of Human Conduct All distinctively human actions aim at some good Some goods are ends and others are means to an end Ends are more valuable than means Some goods are higher than others Eudaimonia Finality completeness a pure end sufficient in itself Not a means not an end that is also a means else Equals excellence external security Aristotle s View of Happiness Specific Nature Desired entirely for its own sake and not for the sake of anything It is not life vitality both plants and animals are alive It is not sentience animals are sentient The distinctive and characteristic function ergon of a human being is reasoning nous Excellent Functioning Aristotle adds the idea of excellence arete to the idea of distinctive functioning In addition to living in accordance with excellent reasoning human beings also need external prosperity or circumstantial security Money friends power social status etc Two Types of Human Excellence 1 Intellectual Excellence excellent functioning of the intellect correct thinking and reasoning corresponds to the rational dimension of the self 2 Moral Excellence excellent functioning of a person s morals Objective Expression morally virtuous feelings and actions are those that avoid Justice is a complete virtue for Aristotle and thus is not a mean as there can never be too much justice doing good with regard to others The function of man then is activity of soul thinking well and doing well using The Doctrine of the Mean the extremes of excess Human Virtue Arete reason Two Types of Virtues 1 Intellectual Virtues relate to our professions 2 Moral Virtues common to all humans but it may vary in degree according to our capacities a Outcome of habit ethike derived from ethos habit b Difference between one and another training in habits in our childhood is not a light manner but all important Both intellectual and moral virtues are needed for us to achieve happiness end in itself Comes from developing a good character which then comes from the development of good habits Most of the ends or goals we seek are instrumental steps toward some ultimate goal Good character through constant practice good character that can happy Virtue as the Mean the Correct Balance People have a natural capacity for good character but it must be developed Virtuous thoughts lead to good acts that lead to good habits which make for a The mean is the right balance between extremes the extreme of excess too much and the extreme of deficiency too little Doctrine of the Mean Moderation Varies from person to person Complete virtues justice and wisdom cannot be too much Difficulty of Being Good Always hard to find the mean in anything Ethics has its roots from Aristotle Concentrates on moral education and moderation pursuing the mean Utilitarianism focuses on consequences concerned with action determines the proper course of action by analyzing which action maximizes overall happiness John Stuart Mill Regarded as a genius Homeschooled at a young age By 14 he was well versed in history and political affairs Wrote On Liberty which put forth the importance to man and society of giving full freedom to human nature to expand itself in innumerable and conflicting directions Asserts that individuals opinions and behavior should enjoy free rein Controversial relationship with Harriet Taylor who wrote the books in sync Ethical philosophy differs from the sciences because it is normative or prescriptive rather than descriptive Ethics tells us how we ought to act or what we should do The result or consequence of an act is the real measure of whether it is good or bad Theory emphasizes Ends over Means Called teleological or consequentialist Jeremy Bentham First utilitarianism philosopher Man is under two great masters pain and pleasure The great good that we should seek is happiness hedonistic perspective Actions whose results increase happiness or diminish pain are good They have utility Mill distinguishes two broad schools of ethical theory Those whose principles are defended by appeals to intuition And those whose principles are defended by appeals to experience utilitarianism Happiness is intended to pleasure and the absence of pain specific kinds of pleasure and pain not just quantity but quality Pleasures of the intellect of the feelings of the imagination and of the mere sentiments a much higher value of pleasure than just sensation Better to be intelligent and miserable than stupid and happy Quality of happiness is greater than the latter Two Types of Utilitarianism 1 Act action is right if and only if it produces the