Chapter 15 Gender Development I Theoretical Perspectives on Gender Development A Biological Influences 1 Evolutionary Approaches a Evolutionary psychology theory i Aggressive tendencies of boys may be result of male male competition throughout evolution Availability of females hunting ii Social tendencies of girls may result from maternal care throughout evolution Close social circles on which to rely for extra support increased chance of offspring survival Impulse control is beneficial for appropriate choice of mates Critiques iii Cannot be tested Emphasizes biological constraints on gender development b Biosocial theory i Gender differences evolved from physical differences Men generally faster stronger hunters Women can nurse and bear children familial supporters ii Change over time Modern society eliminates need to be strong enables reproductive control 2 Neuroscience Approaches a Hormones and brain functioning i Androgens Steroid hormones more prevalent in males than in females Congenital adrenal hyperplasia CAH Overproduced androgens during prenatal period in females Girls are more likely to behave as a tomboy Provides evidence for hormonal effect on behavior ii Organizational influences iii Influence of sex linked hormones on brain differentiation and organization Activational influences Influence of fluctuations in sex linked hormone levels on contemporaneous activation of brain and behavioral responses b Brain structure and functioning i Corpus callosum Larger and denser in women than in men Both hemispheres display more cooperation in women than in men B Cognitive and Motivational Influences 1 Gender self socialization a Biases toward gender appropriate behavior is strengthened by involvement with those gender appropriate activities 2 Cognitive Developmental Theory a Gender identity i Established around 30 months of age ii Reference to oneself as a boy or girl but do not understand the permanence of gender b Gender stability i Occurs around 3 or 4 years of age ii Realization that gender is stable iii Still bases gender on physical appearances A girl dressed as a boy would be a boy c Gender constancy i Occurs around age 6 ii Gender is consistent across various contexts iii Achieved at the same approximate time as theory of conservation 3 Gender Schema Theory a Mental categorization of everything associated with either gender b Initiated and perpetuated by personal memory adult reinforced gender stereotypes and exposure to media c Arbitrary gender typing causes children to like their own gender labelled object more than the object labelled for the opposite gender d Children remember more about things associated with their own gender than the opposite gender a 4 Social Identity Theory Ingroup bias i Bias towards one s own affiliated group Ingroup assimilation i Process by which individuals are socialized to conform to the norms of the b group c Higher status groups are associated with higher group socialization pressure i In most cultures boys have higher status than girls boys are more likely to endorse gender stereotypes and display sexist attitudes i The more children identify with their gender the more they view themselves d Stereotype emulation as having stereotypic qualities 5 Social Cognitive Theory a Learning Mechanisms i Tuition Direct teaching of gender socialization ii Enactive experience Experiencing the reactions one s behavior evokes in others iii Modeling Observation of adults peers and society i e media iv Punishments and rewards Offered by parents peers b Processes of gender role observational learning i Attention ii Memory Behavior must be noticed Behavior must be remembered iii Production iv Motivation Children practice observed behavior Motivation to repeat a behavior depends on incentives or disincentives administered with regard to the behavior c Self efficacy i Results from positive self reactions for behavior ii Can develop gradually through social modeling and by social persuasion 6 Self Socialization A Common Theme in Cognitive Theories a Biased learning towards certain objects increases preference for those objects and decreases opportunities for learning about other objects 7 Cultural Influences a Bioecological Model i Opportunity structure Economic resources offered by macrostructure and people s understanding of those resources Vary based on gender income etc ii Macrosystems culture and microsystems immediate environment both influence and gender opportunities thereby affecting gender equality iii Social Role Theory Gender differences stem from different roles in society II Milestones in Gender Development A Infancy and Toddlerhood 1 Infants can distinguish between males and females based on hairstyle and voice pitch a Differentiation of voices develops by 6 months b Differentiation of faces develops around 9 11 months 2 Behavioral Differences a Activity level i Boys are more active than girls b Temperament inhibitory control i Girls display more inhibitory control than boys 3 Similarities Between Genders a Smiling i Frequency of smiling is the same in infancy b Temperament i Many aspects of temperament are similar in boys and girls 4 Gender socialization and parents differential treatment a Boys and girls tend to be treated the same in most respects b Boys are played with more roughly B Preschool Years 1 Gender Learning a Gender identity i Developed by 2 2 5 years b Gender of others i Aware of others genders by 3 years c Gender constancy i Developed by 5 6 years d Gender occupation association i Learned by age 5 ii Underlying process is statistical learning 2 Gender Typed Behavior a Demonstrations of preferences for gender typed toys begins around age 2 b Boys display more aggressive behavior c Encouraged by parents i Over half of 4 y o boys said their father would think it was bad if they played with girls toys ii Wide variations between families d Gender segregation i Children prefer to play with same gender peers ii Increased gender segregation leads to more gender typed behavior e Gender socialization i Processes of parents gender socialization Channeling shaping Parents create a gendered world for the child i e choice of toys activities Differential treatment Girls and boys treated differently Direct instruction i e boys don t cry Modeling Parents model gendered behavior 1 Realization of fluidity of gender roles slightly more accepting of peers who violate C Middle Childhood typical gender roles 2 Gender Typed Behavior a Gender based