Nicole ManettaStudy Guide Exam 3 Spring 2016Methods of InquiryCorrelational Research/ Survey research:- Survey - to examine or look at closely - Census- a survey of a population where EVERY member of the population is included in the survey data- Questionnaire- an instrument used to measure in a survey. It is a set of predetermined questions asked of all respondentsSampling1) Define your population of interest (A population is the set of all cases of interest)2) Develop a sampling frame- a physical list of all members of the population3) Choose a technique for selecting a subset of members from the frame that will be “representative” of your population. You want an “unbiased” sampleNon-probability sample- A sampling procedure in which there is no way to estimate the probability of any specific element’s inclusion in the sample.- Convenience Sample- elements are selected based on availability and willingness to participate- Snowball Sample- Find one or two possible participants and then use these to locate others- especially useful when the target population is not one where you can easily get a sampling frameProbability sample- The probability of any particular element being included in the sample can be determined- This does NOT mean each element has an EQUAL chance of inclusion- Simple Random sample- A probability sample where every element of the population has an equal chance of inclusion- Must use a formal random method for selecting elements from the sampling frame- Systematic sample- rather than using a formal randomization process to select elements, you use a systematic process such a “choose every nth element” from the list- While not truly random, unlikely to be biased- Stratified sample- A probability sample where you break the sampling frame into “strata” (layers or categories) and then sample from each strata- Stratified Random sample- Break frame into strata and randomly sample an equal number of participants from each strata- Creates approximately equal group sizes so that you can use inferential statisticsas a tool to analyze results- Stratified Proportionate sample- Break frame into strata and randomly sample from each strata such that the proportions in the population are the same as the proportions in the sample- Used to find “typical” attitudeSurvey designs - Cross-sectional Design - One sample drawn from the population at one point in time- Shows differences between two or more populations- Successive Independent Samples Design- Same population but different samples surveyed multiple times over some time period- Can look for changes in the population- Longitudinal Design- Same population, same survey, and same sample (same people) surveyed repeatedly over time- can provide some information about why populations changeObservational research:- Naturalistic Observation- the study of on-going behavior in the natural environment- Reactive behavior- is behavior that is different than normal because of an awareness of being watched- Ethology/ethologists- a European branch of biology/psychology devoted to the study of the behavior of organisms in relation to their natural environment- Jane Goodall: Chimpanzees- Dian Fossey: Mountain Gorillas (Gorillas in the Mist)Methods with intervention- Participant observation - the researcher both observes and participates in the action- Disguised- researcher both observes & participates but is disguised so that the subject is not aware of the observation- This eliminates the problem of reactive behavior provided the disguise works- Undisguised- the subject of the observation is aware that they are being observed- Reactive behavior can be a problem- Structured Observation - observe behavior in a structured environment but do not interfere and observe unobtrusively- “One-way mirror” – watch interactions- Often used when studying family relationships in family therapy situations- Field study - there is a true IV, at least two levels- done in a non-lab, natural environment- uses method of observationMethods of recording behavior in observational research - Inter-observer reliability: the percentage of agreement amongst observers- Advantages of Observational Research- Increased external validity- Allows you to see behavior as complex, the result of many antecedents- Some behaviors can only be observed in a natural setting (such as vandalism)- Disadvantages of Observational Research- Because you are in the “real world” you lose control over many variables - Noise, weather, lighting etcSingle-subject/small n research- the hallmark of this style of research is that the individual’s data are not averaged with those of other participants- Idiographic Research- study of the individual to identify what is unique - can never be described by the “average” value- non-statistical, no large sets of numbers - look for consistency and reliability- Nomothetic Research- study of groups to identify what is typical- Establish broad generalizations and general laws that apply to a diverse population- Fairly new idea - Most early research in psychology was idiographic in nature Brief History- Wundt (1879) and the “introspectionists”: looked at the individual’s “mental experience” - Fisher (1920)- work in agriculture led to the discovery of the field of statistics - Skinner(1930s)-experimental analysis of behavior-a swing back to the study of the individual- Allport (1961)- need both idiographic and nomothetic approach to truly understand behaviorTwo Types of Single-Subject Designs - Descriptive- describe the effect on an individual of a specific treatment or simply describe a particular individual- Experimental- introduce a particular factor (treatment) and measure its effect on some aspect of the individual’s behavior- systematic application of treatmentCase study - Observation- direct observation of the subject- Interview- written or recorded responses to questions from an interviewer- Archival records- stored documents such as test scores, medical records, academic records Applied Behavior Analysis- The application of principles of operant conditioning discovered in the lab to real life problems (B.F. Skinner)- Each subject’s data is studied separately, not combined with any other subject’s dataABAB Reversal Design- Stage 1: Baseline (A) - observe (measure) how the behavior is occurring before intervention/treatment. Rate of behavior before treatment- Stage2: Treatment (B) - introduce