Types Of StudiesScientific MethodologiesDescriptive: what is going on in the environmentCorrelation: do two things have something in common (not cause and effect)Experimental: x caused y; cause and effectThe scientific attitude is composed of curiosity (passion for exploration), skepticism (doubting and questioning) and humility (ability to accept responsibility when wrong)How Do Psychologists Ask And Answer Questions?Psychologists use the scientific method to construct theories that organize, summarize, and simplify observations4 goals of psychological science are:describe (what)example: watching the kids on the play ground get more aggressive as the end of play time comes closer; last child in line is most aggressivepredict (when)kids will get more aggressive as their playground time gets shortercontrol (what causes)notice the effect of time on behaviorexplain (why)explain frustration leading to aggression and use an application to make the children nicerSteps of the SMHypothesizeEducated guess on what will occurTheoryA theory is an explanation that integrates principles and organizes and predicts behavior or eventsExample: People with low self-esteem contributes to depressionWhen creating an experiment, you want to look at something that can predict a cause and effectOperationalizeExplain, define, etc.ConstructsInternal attributes or characteristics that cannot be directly observedUseful for describing and explaining behaviorOperational DefinitionCreates a measurementUse the operational findings to create a measurement and definition of a hypothetical constructMeasureHave a system in which one can record researchResearch ObservationsAdminister tests to support a hypothesisEvaluateAssess the data and your findingsReplicate/Revise/ReportGo further; see if it works with other test groups; etc.Barker, Bembo, & LewinExamined whether frustration caused aggression in children“X causes Y”Showered students a room for of toys and half were allowed to play at the moment and half just had to watch. The later group was more aggressive with their toys (throwing toys, breaking toys, crashing the toys, etc.)Unexpected Finding Can Be ValuableUnexpected discoveries sometimes occurDescriptive Methods: Research method that involves observing and noting the behavior of people or animals to provide systematic and objective analysis or the behaviorNaturalistic Observation: observe the behavior in its natural settingExamplesdevelopmental studies of children on a playgroundwatching the flirty behaviors at a barPROS:Hypothesis generalizationNo bias of self repostCONSGeneralizability: we “generalize” or extend these findings to other similar circumstances or individualsCase Studies: an in-depth study of one individual or groupCorrelation Method: The technique were 2 or more variables are systematically measured and the relationship between them (ie: how much one can be predicted form the other) is assessedExpressed with a mathematical expression called a correlation coefficient (r); a standardization measure of association that ranges from -1.0 to 1.0Positive: more correlated (as one goes up, so does the other)Example: as height goes up, weight goes upNegative: not as correlated (and one goes up, the other goes down)Example: The more people get vaccinated the less often people get the diseaseScatterplotSlope predicts the direction1.0 = In a perfect line in a positive direction0 = Scattered points-1.0 = In a perfect line in a negative directionCorrelation is not causation!!Correlation between ice cream sales and homicides in NYC is r = .70Temperature is the common factor (3rd variable) here, not ice creamPossible reasons for correlations other than causation:3rd variable (ie. Temperature)Could be opposite direction of predictionDoes low self esteem cause depression or does depression cause low self esteem?Could be a spurious relationship2 things just coincidentally happenSurvey: A technique for ascertaining the self-reported attitudes, opinions, or behaviors of people usually done by questioning a representative, random sample of peopleRandom sampling: if each member of a population has an equal chance of inclusion into a sample, it is called a random sampleIf the survey sample is biased, its results are not validPROS:You can ask exactly what you wantYou can pick the populationCONS:Bias of self report (social desirability)Person may change their answer because of what they think you want to hearSome groups do not get representedWording can cause people to chose certain answersIllusory CorrelationThe perception of a relation where no relationship actually existsExample: Parents conceive children after adoptionNo true but makes a good storyOrder In Random EventsGiven random data, we look for order and meaningful patternsExperimentationExploring Cause and EffectLike other sciences, experimentation is the backbone of psychological researchExperiments isolate causes and their effectsMany factors influence our behaviorExperiments manipulate factors that influence us, while other factors are kept under controlEffect generated by manipulated factors isolate cause and effect relationshipsLaboratory ExperimentsIndependent variable: the variable manipulated by the experimenter; the causeDependent variable: the variable measured by the experimenter; the effectZimbardo (1970)Noticed a relationship between anonymity and antisocial and aggressive behaviorDoes anonymity CAUSE antisocial behavior?Brought participants into a lab, told them they were going to deliver electric shock to other participants. Half were anonymous and half were notThose who were anonymous delivered TWICE as many shocksIndependent variable: whether the participants were anonymousRandom Assignment: Assigning participants to experimental and control conditions by random assignment minimizes pre-existing differences between the two groupsData AnalysisGood DateReliabilityThe extent to which a measure is stable and consistentValidityThe extent to which the experimenter can make a confident statement about cause and effectHow much you can trust the statementExample: Weighing scale shows a consistent weight therefor allowing you to believe the shown numbersAccuracyThe extent to which an experimental measure is free from errorRandom Error: value of error differs each timeExample: Step on the weighing scale and get a fluctuating weight (123….120…121)Systematic Error: Value of error is constantExamples: Add 2 pounds to weight every timeHarder