PSYC 324 1st Edition Final Exam Study Guide Lectures 21 26 I Peer Relations Chapter 12 pages 438 467 1 Social Exchanges Taking turns imitating others displaying positive emotions long lasting interactions eye contact cooperative play and negative exchanges such as arguing or fighting are all under this category of social exchanges 2 Relationship A succession of interactions between two people that are affected by their shared past interactions and that also affect their future interactions 440 3 Modeling Children learn a lot by observing their peers and may be especially influenced by older more powerful and more prestigious peer models 442 4 Social comparison The process of evaluating ourselves in comparison to others children look to others especially to their peers for standards with which they can measure their abilities and characteristics 5 Popular These children are liked by most of their peers and disliked by few 6 Average These children are liked by some but not by as many as a popular peer 7 Neglected These children may be socially isolated but may still have a few friends and may not be disliked by peers 8 Controversial These children are liked and disliked equally by their peers 9 Rejected These children are disliked by most of their peers and liked by few They may be highly aggressive and display behavioral problems or otherwise be anxious withdrawn and socially unskilled 445 10 Social Information Processing This model outlines the way children perceive and interpret a social situation decide what they want to achieve in that situation choose a behavior they think likely to accomplish their goal and act on their decisions 446 See Figure 12 3 on page 446 11 Consequences of Rejection Loneliness is the dominant issue especially when the rejected child is victimized by their peers and even after that harassment stops However Rejected children who have a stable friendship with just one other child may feel less lonely than rejected and totally friendless children 453 12 Reputational Bias The tendency to interpret peers behavior on the basis of past encounters with and feelings about them 453 13 Promoting Peer Acceptance Parents are the first models of social interaction so if it s appropriate it can be used to demonstrate appropriate relationships with others Parents can also coach their children and rehearse proper social interactions with them and provide opportunities for social growth by arranging social exchanges with peers 14 Friendship A reciprocal commitment between two people who see themselves more or less as equals 458 Friendships come with expectations such as offering help being loyal and genuine being vulnerable accepting each other etc 15 Making friends Although it has been studied there s no clear cut answer to how children become friends with each other All that has been observed is interactions between friends as different from interactions between non friends 16 Losing friends People and relationships change over time so children often lose relationships and gain new ones as they grow up 17 Adolescent Romantic Relationships These relationships are actually common and although many are short lived there are a surprising number of adolescents whose relationships have lasted more than 11 months Adolescents in romantic relationships report more conflict have more mood swings and experience more symptoms of depression especially around a breakup but there are also positive results of relationships such as a feeling of self worth a sense of competence and a feeling that one is part of a peer group network 463 18 Peer Parental Influence Peers have more influence on a teenager s behavior friend selection and fashion or entertainment choices whereas parents have more influence on their teenager s academics job interests and aspirations 19 Dominance Hierarchies An ordering of individuals in a group from most to least dominant a pecking order 466 These are used to establish nonaggressive means of resolving conflict help divide the tasks and labor of the group and determine the allocation of resources 466 20 Clique This is a group of friends that is voluntarily formed they range in size and the members are typically the same gender and race 21 Crowd These people have been grouped together and consequently stereotyped based on their perceived or actual interests activities or attitudes II Gender Roles Gender Differences Chapter 13 pages 476 503 1 Gender Typing The process by which children acquire the values motives and behaviors considered appropriate for their gender in their particular culture 476 a Stability While in childhood many children will participate in masculine and feminine activities gender typing comes strongly back into play during puberty In spite of these developmental fluctuations in gender typing individual children who are strongly masculine or feminine during childhood tend to be more masculine or feminine during adulthood 481 2 Gender stereotypes Expected set of appropriate behaviors prescribed to each gender in a particular culture a Gender stereotypes are displayed in children s toy preferences girls typically and are expected to enjoy playing with dolls and engaging in non competitive play and boys are expected to play with cars and trucks and be interested in video games and competitive play Boys also typically have a higher activity level than girls 3 Gender Identity How an individual perceives themselves i e masculine or feminine 4 Expressive characteristics Feminine characteristics nurturing concerned with feelings empathic and child oriented 482 5 Instrumental characteristics Masculine characteristics that include task and job orientation 6 There are many gender differences in social behavior one of which is response to an infant When monitoring physiological reactions to a baby s crying men and women responded similarly but the expectation for the woman to act in a nurturing way may influence her behavior to respond to the child differently than the man 7 Hormones and Behavior Androgens male hormones are associated with behaviors such as rough and tumble play and vigorous athletic activities and girls who were exposed to these hormones prenatal testosterone as a fetus preferred boys as playmates and chose toys usually preferred by boys 484 8 Hormones and Cognitive Skills When females are prenatally exposed to high androgen levels their visual spatial skills are better than those of their female peers These skills are still