PSYC 324 1st Edition Exam #2 Study Guide Lectures: 9-14I. Attachment (Chapter 6, pages 204-226)1) Fathers and attachment: “In many cultures, fathers have a special role in the infant’s development—that of playmate…infants tend to react more positively to a father’s style of play than to a mother’s” (205).2) Patterns of attachmenta. Insecure-Avoidant: infant isn’t bothered by the mother’s brief absence, but avoided the mother or became upset when she returnedb. Insecure-Resistant: infant is upset when the mother leaves, but after the mother returns will behave inconsistently, seeking and pushing away the motherc. Insecure-Disorganized: infant is disorganized or disoriented when the mother returnsd. Secure: these are infants who are “secure enough to explore novel environments, who are minimally disturbed by brief separations from their mothers, and who are quickly comforted by their mothers when they return” (208).3) Intergenerational continuity: a parent’s quality of attachment when they were a child has an impact on the quality of attachment for their own children; “people tend to re-create their own childhood relationships when they themselves become mothers or fathers” (215). a. Internal working model: “Mental representations about oneself, one’s own parents, andthe styles of interaction one experienced as a child”; also known as attachment representations (215).4) Stability of attachment: studies have shown that “attachment behavior is highly stable”; this doesn’t mean that the quality of attachment cannot change, especially when life circumstances significantly deteriorate or improve5) Attachment & social behavior: “At 4 to 5 years of age, teachers rated securely attached children as showing more positive emotions and as having greater empathy for others and more ability to initiate, respond to, and sustain interactions with other people…Children with secure attachment histories were more likely to form friendships with other securely attached peers” (219).6) Multiple caregivers: the attachment relationships for children in day care is influenced by the amount of time they spend there as well as the quality of the child carea. “The higher the level of training of staff members, the more likely children are to develop secure attachment relationships with their caregivers” (224).b. “Good day-care providers can sometimes compensate for less than optimal care from parents by giving children an opportunity to form secure attachments outside the home” (224).II. Temperament (Chapter 2, pages 65-68)1) Temperament: “the individual’s typical mode of response to the environment, including such things as activity level, emotional intensity, and attention span” (65).a. Easy: friendly and adaptableb. Difficult: easily upset, “experiences extremes of fussiness and crying” (65)c. Slow to warm up: low activity level, adapts slowly with repeated contact2) Goodness of fit: “A measure of the degree to which a child’s temperament is matched by her environment” (67).III. Heredity and Environment (Chapter 2, pages 42-63)1) Sex chromosomes: 23rd pair of chromosomes, determines sex (XY male, XX female)2) X-linked genes: X chromosomes are longer and carry more genes, so these are the genes that X chromosomes have that Y chromosomes don’t have and are automatically expressed3) Interactions among genes: although some human traits are determined by a single allele or pair of alleles, most characteristics (such as intelligence, sociability, etc) are determined by gene interaction. This explains why some traits don’t run in families.4) Chromosomal abnormalities: these occur when an entire chromosome is defected; a zygote witha chromosomal abnormality will often spontaneously abort, but sometimes it is able to survive, and the child will be diagnosed with a chromosomal abnormality, such as:a. Down syndrome: a physical and mental disability noted by short stature, almond-shapedeyes, and a “heightened susceptibility to such illnesses as leukemia, heart disorders, and respiratory infections”; also called trisomy 21 because it is a result of a defect in the 21st pair of chromosomes, where they have 3 instead of 2 chromosomes (47).b. Turner syndrome: female-only, “occurs because the father’s sperm contained neither an X nor a Y chromosome”; these girls “remain short, with stubby fingers, misshapen necks,and unusually shaped mouths and ears”; normal intelligence, docile, sterile, lacking in some social and emotional skills (50).c. Klinefelter’s syndrome: male-only, occurs “when a male inherits an extra X chromosome,producing an XXY pattern…he is sterile and has many female characteristics, such as breast development and a rounded, broad-hipped figure”; tall stature, potential language and reading problems (50).d. Fragile X syndrome: more frequent in males, occurs when an X chromosome is pinched in some areas, making it fragile; affected people “often have physical abnormalities and psychological and social problems…[which] include anxiety, hyperactivity, attentional deficits, and abnormal communication patterns” (50).5) Range of reaction: heredity does not singularly determine behavior, but it provides a range of possible outcomes that are then selected by the environment6) Canalization: when heredity only offers a small range of reaction, the environment has limited influence on the outcome7) Adoption and twin studies: researchers are able to study the separate effects of genes and environment by studying identical and fraternal twins. For example, “if identical twins show more resemblance on a particular trait than fraternal twins do, we can assume that the resemblance is strongly influenced by genes” (62).8) Shared Environment: When studying twins, it is important to note that identical twins are often “treated more similarly by their parents, evoke more similar responses from people outside the family, and select more similar settings, companions, and activities than do fraternal twins”, meaning they have shared environments (62).9) Non-shared Environment: the opposite of a shared environment; any conditions or activities thatare not shared by children in the same family, more commonly found in fraternal twin relationships.IV. Language Development (Chapter 7, pages 232-268)1) Phonology: “the system of sounds that a particular language uses” (233).2) Semantics: “the study of word