LIN 205 1st Edition Exam #2 Study Guide1. Morphology*see pages 76 & 77Definitions to know:- Morpheme- the smallest unit of language that carries meaning. - Free morpheme- Can stand alone in a word. (Ex: Dog)- Bound morpheme-Can’t stand alone in a word, must be attached to a free morpheme. (Ex: -s) - Grammatical morphemes- Are function words, Inflectional Affixes, and Derivational Affixes.Grammatical morphemes are abstract; they have no clearly defined meaning. (ex: pronouns, prepositions, articles, conjunctions) 1a. Affixes- a. Prefix- precedes rootb. suffix- follows rootc. infix-inserted inside a word (not used in English) d. suprafix – adds a suprasegmental like tone, which conveys meaning (not used inEnglish) e. Inflectional affix- Creates a different form of the same word. It never changes the part of speech. Ex: the plural “-s” in dogs is inflectional because “dog” Is still a noun when the “-s” is added. Inflectional affixes are productive; they can be added to most parts of speech in English. (Ex: Most verbs in English can have “-ing”… running, swimming, laughing, etc.) *verbs: -ed , -s , -ing (worked, works, working) *nouns –s , -‘s, -s’ (girls, girl’s, girls’) *adjectives –er, -est (harder, hardest)(Note: when writing an infix into a formula, it is represented as -infix-. Remember to write a note about how the infix is added, ex: the noun former infix is infixed after the initial consonant of the verb (pg. 102). These notes represent a detailed interpretation of the professor’s lecture. GradeBuddy is best used as a supplement to your own notes, not as a substitute.f. Derivational affix- Creates a different word; usually changes the part of speech. Ex: the “-er” in “writer” is derivational because “write” is a verb and “writer” is a noun. Derivational affixes are un-productive, they can’t be added to most parts of speech in English. (Ex: you wouldn’t say use –un+tall for untall, you would say short.) - Content morphemes- Most morphemes in English are content morphemes although grammatical morphemes are used more often. Contend morphemes have a clearly defined meaning, they are roots. Ex: in “cats” ,“cat” is a content morpheme. - Cran/Cranberry morpheme- No clear meaning; not a morpheme by definition. However, itmay be counted as a morpheme by some. Ex: you can say “cranberry” is one morpheme or 2. “cran” + “Berry” where “cran” is a special morpheme with no meaning outside of theword cranberry. - Morpheme class- Morphemes that occur in the same position of a word and if you exchange them, they create a new word. * When writing a formula for deriving a part of speech, make sure that all the morpheme classes are listed in the order they are used in the word. For an optional morpheme class, use parentheses. The easiest way to go about doing these problems is to first find the roots them identify the affixes. Singular (sg) Plural(pl)1st I (subjective)Me (objective)My/mine (possessive) We (subjective)Us (objective)Our/ours (possessive)2nd You (subjective)You (objective)Your/yours (possessive) You (subjective)You (objective)Your/yours (possessive)3rd He/she/it (subjective)Him/her/it (objective)His/her/hers/its (possessive) They (subjective)Them (objective)Their, theirs (possessive) *English present tense:Habitual- “john drinks”= simple present; timeless, can be present or past. (most languages use simple present) Presently- “john is drinking”= present progressive; happening now. 1b. Allomorphs *Allomorphs are any variant forms of a morpheme. Ex: -s plural} = /-əz/ /-z/ /-s/ *Remember nothing becomes a schwa, it is inserted. /horsz//horsəz/ Øə/ [+ silibant]__z# -əz/ [+ silibant]____(plural) -s/ [-voice -silibant]____ -z/ [+ voice –silibant]____- Morphologically conditional allomorphs- properties of stems and affixes play a role in determining the shape of the word.- Phonologically conditioned allomorphs- when the phonological environment determines which allomorph is used (shape= allomorphs). - Taxonomic solution- each allomorph is a conditioning factor (The simplest one to use when writing a solution). - Systematic solution- pick one allomorph as basic and derive others by means of general phonological rules. Uses underlying representation of morpheme. 2. Syntax*most of the exam will be on morphology but Professor Dryer did mention there may be a simple tree question on the exam. In this case, you would need to know the constituency tests.2a. Constituent- One or more words in a sentence that form a unit. Sentences are not simply sequences of words. Ex: “The dog” is a constituent in the sentence “The dog barked”…written as [The dog]barked] or represented in a tree…The dogbarked- A complex compound = compound + noun or compound + compound - Auxilliary (helping) verb- comes before the main verb. Ex: have, do, will. - Word class- 8 in Traditional grammar (Nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, prepositions, pronouns, conjunctions, interjections). Ex:If you take a grammatical sentence and replace the noun with a different noun, and still get a grammatical sentence then it is a word class. If you replace dog with chicken, the sentence is still grammatically correct. *Morphology and syntax define a word class. * Remember: Prepositional phrases always contain Noun phrases and Noun phrases can containPrepositional phrases. * Nouns can be proper or common nouns. Common nouns can be count nouns or mass nouns. - Verb versus Adjective John is similar to Tom = AdjJohn resembles Tom=Verb You can say “resemble, resembles, resembling, resembled”…but you can’t use those forms for similar. There are a minimal of 4 verb forms…ex: stare, stares, staring, stared2b.Examples of phrase trees and constituents The cat saw the dogThe big chicken ran across the road SThe big chicken ran across the road *page 142.2 constituency tests *page 143 phrase structure rulesNPVPDetNVPPNTheCatSaw ThedogConstituent